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The 

Theory  and  Practice 

OF 

Working  Plans 

(FOREST  ORGANIZATION) 


A.  B.  RECKNAGEL,  B.A.,  M.F. 

Professor  of  Forestry 
Cornell  University 


FIRST  EDITION 
FIRST  THOUSAND 


NEW    YORK 

JOHN    WILEY  &   SONS 

London:   CHAPMAN    &    HALL,  Limited 

1913 


Copyright  1913  l)y 
A.   B.   RECKNA(^,EL 


PRBSS  OP  TUK  PUBLUIURS  PRINTtMO  OOMPAHr,  MBW  YORK.  U.  8.  A. 


PREFACE 

This  book  does  not  pretend  to  present  any  original  theories 
of  Forest  Organization,  but  merely  the  best  of  European  efforts 
along  this  line  adapted  to  the  present  needs  of  American  forestry. 
The  necessary  data  were  gathered  in  the  course  of  a  year's  study 
abroad,  and,  in  their  appUcation,  the  experience  gained  in  five 
years  of  similar  work  for  the  forest  service  in  various  parts  of 
the  United  States  was  constantly  kept  in  mind.  The  theoret- 
ical part  has,  therefore,  been  reduced  to  the  minimum;  simi- 
larly, the  description  of  such  intensive  methods  of  regulating 
the  yield  as  that  by  area  and  volume  in  periods  has  been  merely 
sketched  for  the  sake  of  completeness,  since  its  appHcation  to 
America  is  of  the  far  distant  future,  if  ever.  In  a  word,  while 
sacrificing  nothing  to  the  completeness  necessary  in  a  text- 
book, the  aim  has  been  to  make  the  book  of  value  not  only  to 
the  student,  but  also  to  the  practising  forester,  and  hence  theory 
has  in  each  case  been  subordinated  to  practice. 

It  will  be  ample  reward  for  the  time  and  labor  spent,  if  this 
book  takes  its  humble  place  in  the  growing  list  of  American 
text-books  on  forestry. 

Grateful  acknowledgment  is  made  to  those  who  so  unself- 
ishly assisted  in  the  collection  of  the  subject-matter. 

A.  B.  RECKNAGEL. 
Dresden,   September,   1912. 


Ill 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 

Preface iii 

Introduction, xi 

Value  and  Need  of  Working  Plans,       xi 

Scope  of  Working  Plans xi 

Sphere  of  Working  Plans xii 


PART    ONE 

Foundations  of  Working  Plans 

chapter  i 

Preliminary  Basis 

FACE 

Section  i.  The  Normal  Forest  and  its  Attributes,               i 

The  Increment,      ...          i 

The  Growing  Stock 4 

Distribution  of  the  Age  Classes, 4 

Section  2.  Collection  of  Data. — Reconnaissance,       8 

Preliminary  Work, , 8 

Survey  of  Area, 9 

Timber  Estimates, 10 

Requisites, 10 

Base  Lines, 10 

The  Strips, 12 

Reconnaissance  Estimates 14 

Topographic  Notes, o 16 

Time  of  Survey  and  Estimate,        16 

Use  of  Yield  Tables 17 

Cost,      .     .          17 

Forest  Description 17 

Division  of  Area, 20 

Designations  of  Divisions 2,-5 

Boundaries  of  Divisions, 23 

Maps  and  Tables, 26 

General  Stand  Table, 29 

Age  Class  Table,           - , 31 

V 


vi  CONTENTS 

PACK 

Section  3.  Determination  of  Methods  of  Treatment, 33 

Governing  Conditions, 33 

The  Unit  of  Regulation 33 

Silvicultural  Method  of  Management,       35 

Object  of  Management, 37 

The  Rotation, 38 


CHAPTER    II 
Regulation  of  Yield 

Definition, 42 

Section  l.   Determination  of  \'ieIH, 43 

By  Area  (i) 44 

By  volume.     \'on  Mantel's  Method  (2), 47 

Methode  de  Masson  (3) 49 

By  Current  Annual  Increment  (4), 4<» 

Formula  Methods:  Austrian  Formula  (5) 52 

Karl's  Mctho<l  (6) 55 

Hundeshagen's  Method  (7),       .     .  59 

Brcyniann's  Method  (8),       ...  61 

Heyer's  Method  (9) 63 

Summar>-  and  Comparison  of  the  Formula  Methods,    .  65 

French  Method  (10) W) 

Indian  Method  (11), 72 

Diameter  Class  Method  (12), 75 

By  Area  and  Volume.     Russian  Method  (13) 78 

Direct  .Mtthod  (14), Hi 

Hufnagl's  Method  (15) 82 

The  Stand  Method  (16) 84 

The  Period  Methods  (17) S9 

Review  of  the  Methods  of  Determining  the  Yield, 94 

Section  2.  Distribution  of  Yield, 9'> 

Selection  of  Stands  to  be  Cut, '»7 

Mapping  of  Stands  to  be  Cut «;■'< 

Cutting  Series,        99 

Plan  of  Cutting loo 

General  Cutting  Plan, loi 

Annual  Cutting  Plan.  .103 

Section  3.  Regulation  of  Yield  in  Special  Cases 104 

I.   Regulation  of  Abnormal  Forests 104 

II.  Regulation  f)f  Transition  Forests,       ><Xi 

III.  Regulation  of  Wood-lots «<>8 

IV.  Regulation  of  Turpentine  Forests, •  108 


CONTENTS  Vll 

CHAPTER    III 
The  Working-Plan  Document 

PAGE 

Section  I.  Contents  and  Form, 113 

1.  Orientation 115 

2.  Foundations, 116 

3.  Recommendations, 119 

4.  Regulation 121 

Section  2.  Outlines  for  Working  Plan 122 

A.  Prussian  Outline,       122 

B.  Saxon  Outline, 124 

C.  American  Outline  (suggested).     Complete  Forest  Plan,     .     .     .  124 
Section  3.  The  Planting  Plan, 128 

Annual  Planting  Plan, 130 

General  Planting  Plan 132 

Section  4.   Control  and  Revision  of  Working  Plan,     ........   133 

Control  Book, 134 


PART     TWO 

Practice  of  Working  Plans 

CHAPTER  I 

In  Europe 

PAGE 

Section  i.  Germany, 137 

I.  Prussia, 137 

II.  Bavaria, 147 

III    Saxony, 159 

IV.  Wurttemberg, 163 

V.  Baden, 164 

VI.  Alsace-Lorraine, 167 

Section  2.  France, 171 

Division  of  Area 172 

Method  of  Determining  the  Yield, 173 

Distribution  of  the  Periodic  Cutting  Areas, 175 

Determination  of  the  Allowed  Annual  Cut, 176 

Section  3.  Austria,        I77 

Division  of  Area, 180 

Estimates  and  F"orest  Description, 182 

Determination  of  the  Yield, 185 

Control  and  Revision  of  the  Working  Plan, 186 

Section  4.   Resume,       ...  187 


VIII  CONTENTS 

CHAPTKR    II 
In  Ami: RICA 

PACE 

Section  I.  Elarly  Beginnings, .   kk) 

Section  2.  The  New  Reconnaissance .     .    lyl 

Current  Outline  for  Forest  Working  Plans u;j 

Section  3.   Present  Prcxu-dure,  201 

Forest  Plans 202 

Preliminary  Plans,     .  203 

Working  Plans,      ...  208 

Annual  Plans, 21 1 

Outline  for  the  Pbn  of  Sil\i(  lilt  ural  MaiiagtiiK  III 213 

'liinlxT  Flsiimates, 213 

Forest  Tyix's, 214 

Object  of  Management, 213 

Silvicultural  System,  .  .  215 

Regulation  of  Yield,  ....  216 

Regulation  of  Cut,  216 

Policy 217 

Stumpage  Rates, 217 

I'tilization,  218 

Timber  Business  Statistics 220 

Planting, 224 

Timber  Reconnaissance 226 

Investigations 226 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


Plate  I. — Cutting  Series  and  Compartment  Lines  in  Spruce,  Saxony. 

Frontispiece 

PAGE 

Plate  II. — A  Reconnaissance  Survey  Party,  Florida, lO 

Plate   III. — A  Reconnaissance  Survey  Camp,  Florida, i6 

Plate  IV. — Fig.  i.  A  Compartment  Regenerated  by  Shelterwood  Cut- 
ting, Baden.  Fig.  2.  A  Compartment  Regenerated  by  Border 
Cutting,  Wiirttemberg, 3^ 

Plate  V. — Road  Forming  a  Compartment  Boundany  Line,  Saxony,       .    160 

Plate  VI.' — A  Burned  Area,  Forming  a  Subcompartment,  Arizona,  .      .    208 


Fig.  I. — Sketch  Map  of  part  of  a  Block,  showing  Compartments,   Sub- 
compartments,  Age  Classes,  and  Cutting  Series,    .     .     .     .  •  .     27 

Fig.  2. — Turpentine   Regulation:     Number    of    Crops    Operative    An- 
nually,   112 


INTRODUCTION 

VALUE  AND  NEED  OF  WORKING  PLANS 

Systematic  forest  management  demands  that  the  yield  in 
timber  or  other  forest  products  be  regulated  according  to  time 
and  place.  This  apportioning  of  the  yield  is  the  sphere  of  Forest 
Organization  through  its  instrument,  the  Working  Plan. 

Forest  Organization  is  co-ordinate  in  importance  with  Silvi- 
culture, Forest  Protection,  and  all  the  other  major  branches  of 
the  science  of  Forestry.  It  makes  use  of  them  all  and  combines 
their  several  teachings  into  a  harmonious  whole — the  forest 
properly  adjusted. 

SCOPE  OF  WORKING  PLANS 

In  its  broadest  sense  a  complete  Forest  Plan  deals  not  only 
with  Silvicidtural  Management  of  the  timber  resources,  but  may 
cover  any  or  all  of  the  following  subjects: 

1.  General  administration. 

2.  Silvicultural  management. 

3.  Grazing  management. 

4.  Pennanent  improvements. 

5.  Forest  protection. 

6.  Uses  of  forest  land. 

Since  the  prime  object  of  any  forest  is  the  growing  of  timber, 
the  silvicultural  management  is  the  most  important;  it  is  also 
the  most  difficult.  The  present  work  will,  therefore,  confine  itself 
to  this  phase  of  the  complete  forest  plan.  The  French  call  this 
phase  "Amenagement" — '•'Management'';  the  Germans  call  it 
" Forsteinrichtung " — "Forest  Adjustment"  or  "Forest  Organ- 
ization."   The  latter  title  seems  preferable  since  "management" 


XU  INTRODUCTION 

is  commonly  considered  to  include  Mensuration,  Valuation,  etc.* 
Unfortunately  the  title  "Working  Plan"'  has  been  long  used  in 
America  to  designate  not  only  the  document,  but  the  whole 
subject  of  Forest.Organization.  However,  as  Dr.  Fernowsays:t 
"It  is  difficult  to  eradicate  poor  terms  once  in  the  world,"'  yet 
"we  must  admit  also  the  use  of  synonyms,  for,  after  all.  language 
is  partly  a  matter  of  taste  and  only  partly  of  rule."  The  word 
"Working  Plan''  has,  therefore,  been  retained  for  the  present, 
but  "Forest  Organization"  is  used  synonymously  with  it  to 
designate  the  subject  of  regulated  Silvicultural  Management. 

SPHERE   OF   WORKING   PLANS 

The  working  plan  is  not  confmcd  to  such  forests  as  are 
managed  with  the  idea  of  a  sustained  yield,  but  is  equally  adapted 
to  the  exploitation  forest;  i.e.,  forests  which  are  to  be  logged 
within  the  next  ten  or  twenty  years.  As  in  every  other  business 
the  advantages  of  systematization  are  obvious;  the  working 
plan  secures  these  advantages.  At  the  same  time  it  is  usually 
to  the  interest  of  the  owner  to  leave  the  tract  in  as  favorable 
a  condition  as  possible  for  future  growth  without  the  undue 
cxiK-nditure  of  time,  timber,  or  money.  The  working  plan 
secures  this  by  so  organizing  the  logging  operations  that  the 
natural  reproductive  powers  of  the  forest  are  brought  into  lull 
play  instead  of  being  nullilied  by  the  fortuities  of  haphazard 
and  often  unnecessarily  destructive  logging. 

The  sphere  of  Forest  Organization  therefore  embraces  all 
forests  and  is  applicable  to  all  classes  of  owners,  large  and  small. 


"A  Classification  for  Forestry  Literature,"  Yale  Forest  School,   Bul- 
ktin  I,  1912. 

t  "F.  Q.,"  Vol.  IX.,  Xo.  3,  p.  427. 


PART  ONE 
FOUNDATIONS  OF  WORKING  PLANS 


FOUNDATIONS   OF   WORKING    PLANS 


CHAPTER  I 

PRELIMINARY    BASIS 

SECTION    ONE 

THE  NORMAL  FOREST  AND  ITS  ATTRIBUTES 

At  the  very  root  of  Forest  Organization  lies  the  idea  of  a 
Normal  Forest;  that  is,  one  which  has  a  normal  distribution 
of  the  age  classes  and  a  normal  increment;  these  two  factors 
will,  of  themselves,  result  in  a  normal  growing  stock.  Such  a 
forest  probably  does  not  exist;  it  is  merely  a  theoretical  ideal 
towards  which  to  strive. 

Assuming,  therefore,  that  every  forest  is  more  or  less  ab- 
normal, it  is  necessary  to  determine  the  degree  of  abnormahty 
in  the  following  directions: 

1.  Increment. 

2.  Growing  Stock. 

3.  Distribution  of  the  Age  Classes. 

In  this  connection  it  should  be  noted  that  while  normality  in 
I  and  3  of  themselves  result  in  normality  in  2,  the  reverse  is 
by  no  means  the  case.  A  normal  growing  stock  may  exist  in  a 
forest  with  only  a  single  age  class.  Valuable  as  its  determina- 
tion is,  therefore,  it  should  never  be  used  as  the  sole  criterion 
of  regulating  the  yield. 

The  Increment 

The  determination  of  the  increment  is  the  province  of  Forest 
Mensuration;  without  trespassing  on  this  subject,  so  admirably 


J  TllE   THEORY   AND   PIL\CTICE   OF   WORKING   PL.\XS 

covered  in  Mr.  Graves'  textbook,*  it  is  worth  while  to  consider 
the  matter  solely  in  its  relation  to  Forest  Organization. 

Not  every  method  of  regulating  the  yield  rccjuires  the  deter- 
mination of  the  volume  increment;  e.^.,  the  Method  of  Von  Man- 
tel or  the  Mcthode  de  Masson.  Again,  it  is  jwssible  to  regulate 
the  yield  by  increment  alone  (Hufnagl's  Method).  But,  as  is 
jxjinted  out  in  Chapter  II,  most  methods  of  regulating  the  yield 
require  a  determination  of  the  increment. 

The  normal  increment  is  that  given  in  yield  tables:  this  is 
required  for  several  of  the  "formula  methods."  Where  the  real 
increment  is  to  be  taken  from  yield  tables,  the  values  given 
in  the  table  must  be  reduced  by  the  actual  factor  of  density, 
since  yield  tables  are  always  for  fully  stocked  stands. 

Where  >-ield  tables  are  not  available,  the  incremen.  must 
be  determined  on  the  ground,  either  by  applying  the  increment 
per  cent  of  representative  trees  of  the  stand,  or  else  by  calipering 
sample  areas  and  figuring  their  increment  by  means  of  diameter- 
growth  and  diameter-volume  tables.  The  former  (and  yield 
tables)  is  better  for  nearly  even-aged  stands;  the  latter  method 
for  all-aged  stands. 

Where  diameter-growth  tables  are  lacking,  stump  analyses 
can  be  made. 

For  determining  current  annual  increment  the  use  of  an 
increment  borer  is  deserving  of  wider  popularity  than  it  has 
heretofore  enjoyed  in  America.  Where  no  increment  borer  is 
obtainable,  the  representative  trees,  selected  according  to  any 
of  the  standard  methods  (Draudt,  Urich,  etc.)  can  be  cut  into 
at  breast  height  and  the  rings  on  the  last  inch  of  radius  counted 
on  the  horizontal  under-cut. 

Schneider's  formula  then  applies: 
400 
p  ^      ^  '"•"  45°  ^^  5*^  according   as  the   height-growth  of   the 

tree  is  poor,  average,  or  good), 


•"Forest  Mensuration,"  Henry  Solon  Graves.    New  York,  John  Wiley 
&  Sons. 


THE   THEORY   AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING   PLANS  6 

where  n  =  number  of  rings  of  annual  growth  in  the  last  inch 
and     d  =  diameter  breast  high,  in  inches. 

The  growth  per  cent  must  ahvays  be  translated  into  figures 
of  actual  volume.    For  example: 

A  spruce  tree  28  inches  in  diameter  at  breast  height,  of 
average  height-growth,  shows  8  rings  in  the  last  inch,  bored  at 
breast  height.  The  increment  per  cent  according  to  Schneider's 
formula  is 

^  =  5^8-% 

Assuming  a  stand  of  2,400  feet  board  measure  per  acre,  the 
volume  increment  (current  annual)  would  be,  if  this  were  a 
sample  tree: 

2,400  X  2 

=  48  board  feet  per  acre  per  annum. 

100  r-  r 

Whether  the  current  annual  or  the  mean  annual  increment 
is  to  be  determined  depends  on  the  Method  of  Regulating  the 
Yield  which  is  to  be  adopted  (Chapter  II).  However,  in  general 
it  may  be  said: 

The  "formulae  methods"  usually  require  the  determination 
of  the  mean  annual  increment.  Methods  by  Area  and  Volume 
usually  employ  the  current  annual  increment  pro-rated  for  the 
next  decade  or  two  decades.  Indeed,  for  the  "Period"  Methods 
it  usually  suffices  to  determine  the  increment  of  only  such  stands 

whose  age  is  more  than  half  the  rotation  (  ~)  or  even  only  those 

of  the  two  highest  age  classes  of,  say,  20  years  each.  In  either 
case  it  is  not  usually  necessary  to  determine  painstakingly  the 
exact  increment  of  each  stand,  but  rather  to  correctly  approx- 
imate the  increment  in  each  Working  Figure — i.e.,  the  unit  area 
for  which  the  yield  is  to  be  regulated;  for  it  is  evident  that 
in  comparison  with  the  volume  of  merchantable  timber  the 
increment  is  a  relatively  small  amount.  It  is  a  useful  fact  that 
in  stands  approaching  maturity  (not  overmature)  the  mean 
annual  and  current  annual  increment  remains  virtually  the  same 


4  THE    THEORY   AND   PRACTICE    OF   WORKING    PLANS 

for  about   kn   years;    since  the   former  is  simply   the  volume 

divided  by  the  age    f       j  .  a  sinii)le  way  is  thereby  oi)eiU'(l   to 

approximate  the  current  annual  increment  in  mature,  even- 
aged  stands. 

The  Growing  Stock 

The   normal   growing   stock   is  expressed    by    the    formula: 

ri 

nv  =  - 

2 

where  «?  =  normal  volume  of  gro\nng  stock,  r  =  rotation,  and 
;  =  the  normal  increment  nv  can  also  be  determined  directly 
from  yield  tables  constructed  by  measurements  of  fully  stocked 
stands.  That  the  normal  volume  is  possible  even  with  abnormal 
arrangement  of  the  age  classes  is  clear  if  one  considers  a  unit 
of  area  covered  with  a  normal  steplike  gradation  of  the  age 
classes,  the  same  area  half  bare  and  half  stocked  with  trees 
whose  age  equals  r  (the  rotation),  or  again,  the  whole  area 
stocked  with  trees  whose  age  equals  '  ^r.     In  each  case  by  the 

formula  nv  =    -  the  growing  stock  would  be  apparently  normal, 

yet  true  normality  exists  only  in  the  first  case. 

Distribution  of  the  Age  Classes 

The  correct  distrilnition  of  the  age  classes  is  Ihoorelically  like  a 
series  of  equal  sized  steps,  growing  higher  towards  the  prevailing 
storm  direction.  However,  this  theoretical  ideal  is  never 
achieved;  it  suflkes  that  each  age  class  has  an  approximately 
etjual  representation  on  the  area  which  is  to  have  a  sustained 
yield;  in  fact,  without  a  fairly  even  distribution  of  the  age 
classes  sustained  yield  on  a  given  area  is  impossible. 

Twenty  years  is  commonly  taken  as  one  age  class,  though 
sometimes  lo  and  sometimes  36  years  is  used.  In  any  case 
the  rotation  must  be  a  simple  multii)le  of  the  age  class.  It  is 
customary  to  number  the  age  classes   from  I  up,  beginning  with 


THE    THEORY   AND   PRACTICE    OF    WORKING    PLANS  5 

the  youngest.*  Thus  for  an  8o-year  rotation  there  are  four 
age  classes  of  twenty  years  each;  a  fifth  age  class  would  contain 
all  stands  older  than  r  (the  rotation). 

Where  stands  are  fairly  even-aged,  but  conditions  are  too 
extensive  to  permit  the  exact  assignment  to  definite  age  classes, 
the  general  classification  into: 

merchantable 

near  merchantable 

intermediate 

young  growth 

will  serve  the  purpose.  It  is  of  the  utmost  importance  to  get 
some  conception  of  how  the  age  classes  are  distributed.  If  it 
is  possible,  the  age  should  be  determined  by  counting  the  annual 
rings  on  recent  stumps,  but  in  default  of  this  it  is  useful  to  note 
the  age  class  roughly  as: 

O  overmature  (more  than  rotation  age) 

M  mature         (of  rotation  age  down  to  y^  thereof) 

F  young  (from  lowest  age  to  ]4.  rotation) 

The  perfect  selection  forest  is,  of  course,  all  aged  and  hence 
has  no  age  classes,  or  rather  all  age  classes  are  inextricably 
intermingled.  But  where  the  age  differences  are  not  to  exceed 
Yz  or  %  oi  the  rotation,  the  stand  can  be  classified  according  to 
its  average  age,  or,  more  exactly,  according  to  the  proportion 
of  space  each  age  occupies.  For  example:  320  acres  of  spruce 
might  contain  160  acres  of  trees  70  years  old,  100  of  trees  60 
years  old,  and  60  acres  of  trees  only  40  years  old.  The  average 
age  here  would  be  61  years;    for: 

160  X  70  +  100  X  60  +  60  X  40 

=  61  years. 

320 

Where,  in  uneven-aged  forest,  the  age  classes  are  so  inter- 
mingled that  they  cannot  be  distinguished  by  area  but  only 
by  volume   (from   the   diameter-classes  in   the   estimates,   see 

*  In  Prussia  this  is  reversed,  I.  is  the  oldest  age  class. 


0  THE    THEORY    AND    PRACTICE    OF    WORKING    PLANS 

c    .•        \    *u                            .L      volume  ..   , 

Section  2),  the  average  age  =  the  . ;c.c.,\l  the  uneven- 
increment 

aged  forest  has  three  main  age  classes: 

100  year  class  with  2,000  feet  board  measure 
60     "         "       "     1,200     " 
50     "         "       "        800     " 

2000  -f  1200  -f-  800 

2000   ,    1200   ,   800 

100         60         50 

The  ordinary  selection  forest  would  show  the  following  dis- 
tribution of  ages  by  area: 

E.g.,  900  acres  of  selection  forest  with  a  rotation  of  150  years 

and  a  cutting  cycle  of  30  years  would  normally  contain    '—  =  5 

age  classes,  not  distinct  in  space  but  in  area,  as  follows: 

„  , ,  900  X  30      ^ 

1  recs       I-  30  years  old  =  180  acres 


"     31-  60   " 

" 

=  180     " 

61-  90    " 

" 

=  180     " 

91-120    " 

„ 

=  180     " 

"     I2I-I50    " 

"     " 

=  180     " 

Total 

,    900  acrt- 

A  convenient  way  to  express  the  age  limits  and  average  age 
in  an  uneven-aged  stand  is  l)y  the  expression where,    m 

the  example  above,  the  age  varies  from  50  to  100  years  and  the 
average  has  been  determined  as  71  years  (strictly  71.4  years). 
Where  the  average  age  has  not  been  arithmetically  determined 
the  approximate  age  figures  will,  at  least,  serve  as  a  valuable 

guide.     Or  even  the  letters    O,   1',  .\f    may  be  used,  e.g.,  ~~r- 

would  be  a  stand  Mature  to  Overmature  with  the  average 
Overmature,  i.e.,  in  excess  of  the  rotation  age. 


THE   THEORY  AND  PILA.CTICE  OF  WORKING  PLANS  / 

Nor  should  it  be  forgotten  that  certain,  species,  such  as  fir 
and  spruce,  often  withstand  decades  of  suppression  during  which 
their  growth  is  almost  nil.  In  determining  their  age  this  "core 
of  suppression"  should,  therefore,  be  disregarded. 

Areas  that  are  being  regenerated  by  shelterwood  methods 
fall  into  two  age  classes,  divided  according  to  the  per  cent  of 
density  of  the  original  stand.  For  example,  a  shelterwood  cutting 
in  a  90-year-old  stand  covering  200  acres  of  which  only  40  per 
cent  of  the  stand  remained  uncut  would  be  apportioned :  80  acres 
to  the  higher-age  class  and  120  acres  to  the  lowest  or  to  the 
"blanks"  if  no  reproduction  was  on  the  ground.  WTiere  less 
than  20  per  cent  of  the  original  stand  remains  on  a  cutting  area 
or  burn  and  the  density  of  stocking  is  less  than  .3  (Section  2) 
and  there  is  no  reproduction  the  area  is,  temporarily  at  least, 
classed  with  the  "blanks." 

The  age  classes  are  differentiated  by  species  only  if  there  is 
a  marked  difference  in  their  value. 

There  are  two  graphic  ways  of  comparing  the  actual  with  the 
normal  distribution  of  the  age  classes.  One  is  by  plotting  the 
normal  and  the  actual  area  of  each  age  class  on  cross-section 
paper,  using  the  co-ordinates  for  age  and  the  abcissae  for  area. 
The  normal  distribution  will,  of  course,  be  a  straight  Hne;  the 
actual  a  zigzag,  now  rising  above,  now  falHng  below  the  hori- 
zontal line  of  normality. 

The  other  method  is  that  of  rectangular  blocks,  the  normal 
age  classes  being  equal-sized  and  placed  next  to  the  unequal 
blocks  showing  the  actual  size  of  the  various  age  classes. 

It  is  always  of  advantage  to  compare  the  real  and  the  normal 
age-class  distribution;  for  it  is  a  criterion  of  a  sustained  yield 
and,  in  conjunction  Avith  the  increment,  determines  the  degree 
of  approach  toward  a  normal  forest. 


8  TIIE   TlfEOKY   AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING    PLANS 

SECTION    TWO 

COLLIXTIOX   OF   DATA— RECUXXAISSAXCE 

Here  again  Forest  Organization  touches  upon  the  domain 
of  Forest  Mensuration  and.  in  part,  of  Engineering.  Hence  only 
the  salient  points  atTecting  the  Working  Plan  will  he  treated. 

Prkliminary  Work 

Before  the  field  work,  is  begun,  all  available  data  should  be 
gathered  from  the  records,  along  the  following  lines: 

1.  Area  and  boundaries  of  forest. 

2.  Best  existing  estimates  of  timber. 

3.  Approximate  distribution  of  species. 

4.  Salient  topographic  features. 

5.  Past  cuttings  and  their  results;   stumpage  prices. 

6.  Classes  of  material  utilized;  prices  obtained;   market  con- 

ditions. 

7.  Previous  working  plan  or  previous  silvical  studies;    vol- 

ume, growth,  or  yield  tables. 

8.  Best  maps  available. 

Armed  with  these  data,  the  Forest  Organizer  should  then 
make  a  preliminary  trip  over  the  forest  so  as  to  gain  a  general 
familiarity  therewith  and  the  better  to  formulate  his  plan  of 
campaign.  Wherever  possible,  he  should  be  acc»nipanied  b>- 
the  owner,  the  administrator,  or  both. 

A  conference  should  always  be  had  between  the  owner  or 
administrator,  or  both,  and  the  Forest  Organizer.  The  wishes 
and  objects  of  the  owner  are  basic  in  outlining  a  plan  of  silvi- 
cultural  management  and  determine  what  data  are  requisite  and 
what  degree  of  detail  is  necessary  in  securing  these  data.  The 
permissible  cost  of  field  work  should  also  be  decided.  It  is  well 
if  the  results  of  this  conference  are  put  in  writing  and  the  docu- 
ment signed  by  each  of  the  participants. 


the  theory  and  pr.a.ctice  of  working  plans  \) 

Survey  of  Area 

A  good  map  is  an  essential  part  of  every  Working  Plan. 
The  map  need  not  be  elaborate,  but  it  must  be  accurate. 

Where  the  land  involved  has  not  been  surveyed,  this  must 
form  a  part  of  the  field  work,  though  it  can  often  be  done  in 
conjunction  with  the  estimating.  In  every  case,  reconnaissance 
involves  at  least  the  retracement  of  the  principal  land  lines  and 
their  fixation  on  the  ground  and  on  the  map.  Especial  attention 
must  be  given  to  the  boundary  hues. 

It  is  very  serviceable  to  post  boundary  and  interior  corners 
with  fire  warnings  or  similar  placards,  in  pathless  forests.  These 
are  most  helpful  in  indicating  the  position  of  corners,  especially 
if  they  are  stamped  with  rubber  stencils  and  indelible  ink  to 
show  what  corner  it  is.  Thus  where  the  land  is  sectionized,  the 
section  corner  would  be  posted  and  perhaps  also  where  an  im- 
portant section  or  township  Hne  crossed  a  much-traveled  road 
or  trail.  The  object  is  to  make  the  results  of  field  surveys  or 
retracement  of  old  survey  fines  available  not  only  on  the  map, 
but  on  the  ground. 

The  extent  to  which  topography  should  be  shown  depends 
on  the  uses  of  the  map.  Where  a  detailed  plan  of  logging  is  to 
be  included,  the  topography  must  be  shown  in  detail.  For 
purposes  of  ordinary  forest  organization  it  suffices  to  show  all 
drainage,  all  roads  and  trails,  all  houses,  barns,  and  other  "cul- 
ture," and  the  topography  in  contours  of  loo-foot  interval 
sketched  in  from  aneroid  barometer  traverses.  In  level  country 
contours  serve  no  useful  purpose.  In  the  matter  of  topography 
the  object  is  to  get  a  good  working  medium  for  orientation  and 
for  the  subsequent  di^dsion  of  the  area. 

The  scale  of  the  map  must  depend  on  the  size  of  the  area, 
the  wealth  of  detail,  and  the  intensity  of  the  proposed  manage- 
ment. Ordinarily  a  scale  of  i  or  2  inches  to  the  mile  for  the 
general  map  is  quite  sufficient.  Where  the  forest  is  very  large 
it  is  well  to  have  a  small  scale  location  map,  and  then  larger  scale 
-maps  showing  the  various  parts  of  the  forest  in  greater  detail. 


10  rm:  tiikoky  and  practick  of  working  pl.\ns 

No  survey  of  the  area — and  no  forest  map — is  complete 
which  does  not  include  a  delineation  of  the  forest  tyi>es.  This  is 
usually  done  in  conjunction  with  the  estimating,  but  its  im- 
portance must  be  emphasized  here.  Simplicity  in  tNpe  dis- 
tinctions is  essential  for  clearness.  Only  those  tj-pc  differences 
should  be  recognized  which  are  sufficiently  striking  as  to  be 
recognized  instantly  by  every  trained  eye.  Ordinarily,  per- 
manent t}pes  alone  should  be  regarded,  but  often  transitory 
types — e.g.,  aspen  on  old  burns — must  be  recognized,  since  they 
demand  a  dillerent  treatment.  Minor  dilTerences  should  never, 
for  the  purposes  of  a  Working  Plan,  be  made  the  basis  of  type 
distinction. 

The  mapping  of  all  cut-over  or  burned  areas,  of  swamps, 
barrens,  etc.,  is  a  part  of  every  forest  survey. 


Timber  Estimates 

Requisites. — Without  encroaching  on  the  subject  of  forest 
mensuration,  the  requisites  of  the  timber  estimates  for  purposes 
of  the  Working  Plan  are: 

1.  Amount  and  species  of  timber. 

2.  Class  of  timber  (saw  timber,  cordwood,  etc.). 

3.  Condition  of  timber  (soundness). 

4.  Approximate  age  of  timber. 

For  purposes  of  combining  the  survey  with  the  timber  esti- 
mate, the  strip  method  of  estimating  is  undoubtedly  the  best. 
From  a  defmite  base  line — such  as  a  section  boundary  or,  if  in 
unsurveyed  or  very  rough  country,  a  base  line  previously  run 
out — the  strips  are  run  out  at  right  angles,  at  definite  in- 
tervals. 

Base  Lines. — The  section  line  serves  as  an  excellent  base, 
cspeciail}-  in  fairly  level  country.  Rough  topography  or  the  lack 
of  suitable  survey  lines  as  a  base  make  it  necessary  to  establish 
base  lines  in  advance  of  the  actual  estimating.  They  should  be 
located  in  valley  bottoms,  along  roads,  or  elsewhere  so  that  they 
can  be  easily  re-traced;  at  the  same  time  the y  eivc  a  preliminary 


PLATE   II. 


A  Reconnaissance  Survey  Party,  Florida. 


THE    THEORY    AND    PR.A.CTICE    OF   WORKING   PLANS  11 

topographic  control.  The  distances  must  of  course  be  measured 
accurately  either  by  chain  or  tape  or  by  stadige.  The  use  of 
stadia — involving  a  mountain  transit  or  a  telescopic  alidade — 
is  advisable  only  in  fairly  open  country  or  for  the  primary  base 
hnes.  The  chain  or  tape  is  much  handier  in  timbered  country; 
pacing  is  not  accurate  enough  for  this  purpose. 

Beginning  at  some  known  point,  or  at  least  tied  thereto  by 
definite  triangulation,  the  base  line  system  is  developed  over  the 
whole  forest  like  the  stem  and  branches  of  a  tree.  The  number 
of  base  Hnes  must  depend  on  the  intensity  of  the  work  ;  better 
fewer  and  accurate  than  many  and  shpshod. 

A  traverse  board  and  open  sight  alidade  are  excellent  for 
base-line  work  unless  the  timber  is  too  dense  ;  then  chaining 
alone  is  possible,  and  the  notes  must  be  plotted  not  only  upon 
return  to  camp,  but  immediately,  in  the  rough,  so  as  to  determine 
where  the  equidistant  survey  stations  are  to  be  estabUshed. 
For  the  base  line  traverse  -will  necessarily  be  a  zig-zag  and  the 
survey  stations  must  be  exactly  equidistant.  They  are  usually 
marked  with  a  stake  and  a  pile  of  stones  or  a  blaze,  scribed  or 
blue-penciled  with  the  number  and  the  elevation  of  the  station. 
For  purposes  of  identification  it  is  well  to  place  the  station  close 
to  some  road,  trail,  stream,  or  other  topographic  feature.  The 
elevation  is  determined  by  aneroid  barometer  readings  carried 
from  some  point  of  known  elevation.  Where  transit  or  telescopic 
alidade  are  used  it  can  also  be  determined  by  the  vertical  angles. 
The  crossings  of  all  roads  and  trails,  of  creeks,  etc.,  are  noted, 
either  directly  plotted  on  the  traverse  table  or  else  entered  in 
the  note-book;   the  elevation  at  these  crossings  is  also  noted. 

If  the  forest  is  so  large  that  the  estimating  will  require  several 
seasons,  only  so  much  of  the  base-line  work  need  be  completed 
in  advance  as  will- be  used  in  that  season.  However,  base-line 
work  can  often  be  done  to  advantage  several  months  before  the 
detailed  estimates  are  begun. 

Wherever  possible,  the  Forest  Organizer  should  himself  be 
in  charge  of  the  base-line  work.  Three  men  constitute  the 
o^-dinary  base-line  crew;  two  will  suffice  at  a  pinch,  though  it  is 


I'J  THK    THEORY    AND    PR.\CTICE    OF   NVORKING    PLANS 

better  to  have  two  to  chain  and  one  for  the  traverse  hoard  or 
to  enter  notes,  take  aneroid  readings,  etc. 

The  Strips.— The  estimate  strips  should  always  run  across 
the  tojHjgraphy ;  only  in  that  way  will  average  conditions  be 
secured.  The  size  of  the  crew  dejXMids  on  the  method  of  esti- 
mating employed.  The  ordinary  valuation  survey  crew  consists 
of  two  caliper  men,  and  a  head  and  a  rear  chainnian.  The  former 
runs  the  compass,  the  last  named  takes  notes  on  topography 
and  elevation  and  enters  the  diameters  breast  high  as  called  out 
by  the  caliper  men.    Each  strip  is  usually  one  chain  wide. 

Where  the  strip  is  not  chained,  the  crew  can  be  reduced  to 
three,  or  even  two,  the  compassman  to  pace  and  keep  notes, 
two  (or  one)  to  caliper. 

Where  trained  men  are  used,  calipering  is  seldom  necessary; 
here  two  men — one  to  pace  and  keep  notes,  one  to  estimate 
diameters — suffice. 

In  open  timber  the  strips  can  be  widened  to  one  chain  on 
each  side  of  the  line. 

One  man  can  run  a  strip,  but  he  can  scarcely  manage  com- 
pass, aneroid,  note-book,  and  estimate  all  at  the  same  time. 
Either  he  must  make  an  ocular  estimate  of  the  whole  stand  or 
else  confine  himself  to  quarter-acre  (or  similar  sized)  sample 
areas  at  definite  inter\'als.  Only  in  cases  of  need  is  this  sample- 
area  method  advised;  it  is  usually  better  economy  to  use  a 
two  or  more  man  crew.  The  work  goes  better,  the  men  check 
each  other's  judgment  and,  finally,  in  case  of  accident,  the  single 
man  is  not  left  helpless. 

The  strips  must  gridiron  the  forest.  The  interval  between 
the  grids  depends  on  the  puqx>se  of  the  work.  F'or  a  reliable  esti- 
mate 5  to  lo  per  cent  of  the  area  should  be  covered.    This  means: 

For    5  per  cent  of  area:  chain  wide  strips  20  chains  apart. 
"      5    "       "  "        strijis   two  chains  wide,   40  chains 

apart. 
"      5   "       "  "        Four     /4-acre    sample  areas,    2j^2 

chains  apart  on  strips  ?c   chains 
apart 


THE  THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  WORKING  PLANS 


13 


For  lo  per  cent  of  area  chain  wide  strips  lo  chains  apart. 
"    lo   "       "  "        strips   two   chains   wide    20   chains 

apart. 
"    10   "       "  "        Four    jkf-acre    sample    areas,    2yi 

chains  apart  on  strips    10  chains 
apart. 
A  very  practical  way  of  recording  the  estimates  is  by  3-inch 
diameter   classes,    beginning   with    the    smallest   merchantable 
diameter,  supposing  this  to  be  11  inches,  as  follows: 


D.  B.  H. 

SPECIES 

inches 

Pine 

Spruce 

Fir                       Etc. 

12.  .  . 

18 

21    .                           .     . 

24,  etc    

Poles 

Seedliiie's 

Seedlings  are  all  trees  under  5  feet  in  height;  these  are  usually 
counted  on  a  quarter-acre  circle  at  the  end  of  every  ten  chains 
or  so,  to  supplement  the  notes  on  reproduction  (see  below). 

Saplings  are  from  5  feet  in  height  to,  say,  6  inches  diameter 
breast  high. 

Poles  are  over,  say,  6  inches  diameter  breast  high  up  to  the 
minimum  merchantable  diameter.  Poles  and  saplings  are 
counted  and  tallied  just  like  the  larger  timber. 

While  the  strip  estimates,  in  combination  with  volume  tables, 
usually  give  more  accurate  results  than  an  ocular  estimate,  the 
greater  expense  of  the  former  and  the  longer  time  required  to 
cover  a  given  area  often  decide  in  favor  of  the  latter,  expecially 
where  a  rough  estimate  suffices  and  data  on  diameter  classes 
are  not  requisite. 

Various  methods  of  ocular  estimating  have  been  devised;  for 
purposes  of  Forest  Organization  the  Method  of  Reconnaissance 


14  THE   THKUKY  AND  PKAt  IICE   Ut    WURKING   PLAN'S 

Estimating  practised  by  the  Federal  Forest  Service  since  1907 
is  probably  the  best.* 

Reconnaissance  Estimates. — This  method  is  briefly  as 
follows:  Beginning  at  a  known  point,  the  estimator  paces  10 
chains,  compass  in  hand,  in  a  straight  X.,  S.,  E.,  or  W.  line. 
This  places  him  in  the  centre  of  a  40-acre  square.  For  example, 
if  the  initial  point  were  10  chains  west  of  the  southeast  corner 
of  Section  6,  the  estimator  would  pace  10  chains  due  north  and 
thereby  be  in  the  exact  centre  of  the  S.E.  J  4  of  the  S.E.  J4  of 
Section  6. 

Here  the  estimator  glances  carefully  around  and  "sizes  up'' 
the  timber  to  the  best  of  his  ability.  However,  he  makes  no 
permanent  entry  in  his  note-book  until,  having  gone  a  further  10 
chains  in  the  same  direction,  the  boundary  of  the  40-acre  square 
is  reached.  The  last  10  chains  may  have  revealed  conditions 
necessitating  a  change  in  the  original  estimate;  the  estimator 
now  sets  down  the  estimate  by  species  for  the  entire  forty  directly 
in  M.  feet  board  measure  or  cords  or  other  unit.  A  diagrammatic 
blank  is  provided  for  the  purpose.  He  also  notes  the  general  age 
of  the  timber  and  designates  it  for  the  forty  by  the  letters: 

0   for  overmature — older  than  the  rotation  age. 

M  for  mature        — more  than  half  the  rotation  age. 

r  for  young  — less  than  half  the  rotation  age. 

The  intermediate  grades  0-Af  and  Y-M  arc  also  used. 

This  classification  and  the  estimates  are  for  timber  above  the 
minimum  merchantable  diameter;  below  this  diameter,  the 
"young  growth"  or  "reproduction"  is  designated  for  the  forty 
by  the  letters: 

G   for  good — enough  to  fully  restock  the  area. 

F   for  fair  — enough  to  half  restock  the  area. 

P   for  poor — practically  nothing  wherewith   to  restock   the 
area. 
The  intermediate  grades  G-F  and  P-F  are  also  used. 

•  For  detailed  description  sec  "Proceedings  Society  of  American  Forest- 
ers," Vol.  IV.,  No.  I.  Reprinted  Yale  PubiishinR  Association,  1909.  See  also, 
for  practical  workings,  cost,  etc.,  "F.  Q.,"  \'ol.  VIII.,  No.  4,  pp.  415  to  418. 


THE   THEORY  AND  PRACTICE   OF   WORKING  PLANS  15 

This  process  repeats  itself  for  each  forty.  For  purposes  of 
checking,  the  estimator  ties  his  line  to  any  known  points.  E.g., 
in  the  above  example,  after  having  run  40  chains  or  to  the  middle 
of  the  Section,  the  estimator  ties  to  the  E.  yl  corner  thereof; 
again,  after  having  run  80  chains  or  to  the  northern  section  line, 
the  estimator  ties  to  the  N.E,  section  corner.  Similarly  base- 
line corners  are  tied  to,  and  the  aneroid  elevations  checked. 

In  tying  to  surveyed  section  corners  Mr.  J.  H.  AlHson  of  the 
Forest  Service  has,  from  many  years  of  field  experience,  evolved 
an  excellent  shortcut.  E.g.,  in  the  example  cited  above,  the 
estimator  starts  directly  from  the  S.E.  section  corner  and  runs 
14. 1  chains  N.  45°  W.,  which  places  him  in  the  centre  of  the 
S.E.  }i  of  the  S.E.  }i.  Thence  he  runs  due  north  10  chains 
at  a  time.  The  twentieth  chain  places  him  in  the  centre  of  the 
N.E.  }i  of  the  S.E.  }i.  Thence  he  runs  14. i  chains  N.  45°  E. 
to  the  E. ^corner  and  ties  thereto.  Thence  again  14. i  chains 
N.  45°  W.  to  the  centre  of  the  S.E.  }^  of  the  N.E.  }i,  thence  10 
and  again  10  chains  due  north  to  the  centre  of  the  N.E.  }i  of  the 
N.E.  }i,  thence  14. i  chains  N.  45°  E.  to  the  N.E.  section  corner. 
To  go  back  southward  through  the  section — from  the  N.E. 
section  corner  the  estimator  runs  20  chains  due  W.,  thence  S. 
45°  W.  14. 1  chains  to  the  centre  of  the  N.W.  X  of  the  N.E.  }i, 
thence  due  south,  reversing  the  process  previously  described 
(except  that  there  is  no  centre  corner  to  tie  to),  and  so  reach- 
ing after  60  chains  due  south,  the  centre  of  the  S.W.  yi  of  the 
S.E.  %,  and  thence  14.  i  chains  S.  45°  W.  to  the  south  %  corner 
of  the  section. 

Obviously,  the  distance  between  the  strips  must  be  varied 
according  to  the  character  of  the  timber  traversed.  Very  open 
stands  may  permit  strips  40  instead  of  20  chains  apart  and 
estimates  by  quarter  sections;  in  dense  stands  the  distance  may 
have  to  be  shortened  to  10  chains  and  the  estimate  made  by 
lo-acre  units.  The  method  remains  the  same.  The  criterion 
is  the  area  which  can  be  looked  over  by  the  estimator  without 
slighting  any  important  part. 

In  this  method  the  estimator  should  be  an  experienced  judge 


10  THE   THEORY   AND  PRACTICE   OF  WORKING  PL.\NS 

of  timber;  in  any  case  he  should  check  his  judgment  by  frequent 
sample  areas  whose  contents  have  been  accurately  determined 
by  calipering  each  tree;  thorough  drills,  monthly,  on  sample 
"forties''  will  ser\'e  to  test  and  bring  up  to  standard  the  judg- 
ment of  each  man  in  an  estimating  crew. 

Topographic  Notes.— Besides  the  timber  cstimatin^s  it  is 
a  valuable  tVaturc  of  all  strip  systems  that  the  opportunity  is 
olTered  to  get  excellent  data  on  topographic  features. 

The  estimator  or  tally  man  carries  an  aneroid  barometer 
and  notes  the  elevation  at  each  stream,  divide,  or  similar  feature; 
also  at  each  corner  to  which  he  ties.  Streams,  ridges,  roads, 
trails,  etc.,  are  sketched  by  him  in  a  suitable  note-book  so  as 
to  show  the  exact  point  at  which  these  features  were  crossed 
and  their  trend  for  a  short  distance  to  either  side  of  the  survey 
line.  The  same  method  applies  to  burned  and  cut-over  areas. 
The  boundaries  of  these  and  of  the  forest  t>'pes  should  be  noted 
where  they  are  crossed  and  their  trend  for  a  short  distance  to 
either  side  of  the  survey  line.  These  data  should  be  sketched 
in  on  blanks  or  note-books  provided  for  the  purjxjse. 

Time  of  Survey  and  Estimate. — The  "field  season" — i.e., 
that  season  when  Ikld  work  can  be  accomplished  with  the 
minimum  of  climatic  ditViculties — is  usually  the  best  for  the  work 
of  estimating  and  mapping.  In  mountainous  countries  and  in 
northern  latitudes,  this  means  the  summer  months;  in  southern 
latitudes  winter  is  often  preferable  because  of  the  excessive 
summer  heat.  Even  in  mountain  regions  the  winter  season  may 
sometimes  be  chosen  because  the  forest  jjersonnel  is  usually  less 
heavily  burdened  with  work  in  winter  than  in  summer.  That 
winter  work  is  entirely  feasible,  if  snowshoes  or  skis  arc  used, 
is  demonstrated  by  the  winter  reconnaissance  in  certain  mountain 
forests  of  California.*  One  advantage  of  winter  work  is  the 
ease  with  which  the  compassman's  tracks  can  be  followed  by 
the  cruisers  and  used  by  them  as  a  check  on  the  width  of  the 
estimating  strips. 

*  Sec  "Winter  Reconnaissance  in  Californian  Mountains,"  R.  F.  Ham- 
matt,  "F.  Q.,"  Vol.  IX.,  No.  4,  i)p.  557-5^0 


PLATE   III. 


A  Reconnaissance  Survey  Camp,  Florida. 


THE   THEORY  AND  PRACTICE   OF   WORKING  PLANS  17 

Use  of  Yield  Tables.— The  estimating  of  timber  by  means 
of  yield  tables  unfortunately  finds  little  or  no  application  in 
America  because  of  the  lack  of  suitable  tables.  Yield  tables 
are  constructed  for  even-aged  fully  stocked  stands  of  a  single 
species  for  various  site  qualities.  The  age  is  usually  given  in 
five-  or  ten-year  intervals.  European  yield  tables  are  separated 
for  final  and  intermediate  yield  (thinnings)  and  total.  Normal 
yield  tables  preponderate,  but  real  (empirical)  yield  tables  are 
used  as  makeshifts.  The  methods  of  making  yield  tables  is  the 
province  of  Forest  Mensuration,  but  for  purposes  of  Forest 
Organization  the  data  should  comprise  at  least:  Age,  Yield, 
Current  and  Mean  Annual  Increment  for  each  Site  Quality 
(I  to  V,  see  "Forest  Description,"  below). 

The  use  of  Yield  Tables  requires  the  determination  in  the 
field  of  the  following  data  (presupposing  nearly  even-aged 
stands):  Age,  Site  Quahty,  Density  of  Stocking.  The  corre- 
sponding value  for  the  age  and  site  quahty  is  read  directly  from 
the  yield  table  and  this  multipKed  by  the  factor  of  density 
(i.o  to  o.o) — see  "Forest  Description,"  below.  Where  there  are 
several  species  in  the  stand,  the  percentage  of  each  is  determined 
and  the  corresponding  value  in  the  various  yield  tables  mul- 
tiplied thereby;  these  values  are  then  added  and  their  sum  mul- 
tiplied by  the  factor  of  density  (i.o  to  o.o). 

Cost. — The  cost  of  estimating  by  the  strip  methods  averages 
between  the  following  figures: 

Summer  work 1.5  to  6  cents  per  acre 

Winter  work 3.0  to  6  cents  per  acre 

Forest  Description 

It  is  of  the  utmost  importance  for  the  Working  Plan  that 
the  silvical  data  secured  in  gridironing  a  forest  be  made  a  matter 
of  record.  In  order  that  the  observer  may  put  down  his  observa- 
tions while  they  are  fresh  in  his  mind  it  is  well  to  provide  a  note- 
book or  blanks  with  appropriate  headings,  such  as: 

Character  of  Forest. — Even-aged,    all-aged,    even-aged    in 

2 


18  THE   THEORY    AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING   PLANS 

j;roups.  etc.,  average  age.  Component  species  in  percentages 
of  chief  timber  trees. 

Average  Site  Quality.— (I  to  V  of  which  I  is  the  best,  V  the 
IXK)rc>l;  intcrnicdiiitc  grades  are  expressed  thus:  I;  II,  H'/V, 
etc.  The  usual  criterion  for  determining  site  quality  is  the 
height  growth;  tables  of  height  growth  serve  as  a  useful  guide 
in  this  respect.  Until  the  eye  is  trained,  some  hypsometer 
measurements  are  advisable.  Comparative  volume  growth  is 
also  a  useful  guide  to  Site  Quality. 

Density  of  Stocking.— (i.o  to  o.o  in  decimals,  of  which  i.o 
is  the  fully  stocked  stand,  o.o  is  the  vacant  or  barren  area.)  The 
density  is  usually  determined  by  the  crown  cover,  although  this 
varies  with  the  species.  For  example,  a  fully-stocked  stand  of 
Western  yellow  pine  has  an  altogether  difTerent  crown  density 
from  the  fully  stocked  stand  of  spruce.  The  best  judgment 
of  the  observer  is  required  in  this  and  every  other  phase  of  forest 
description,  if  the  data  arc  to  be  of  real  value  and  use  and  not 
merely  ''guesswork." 

Both  Site  Quality  and  Density  of  Stocking  have  their  explana- 
tion in  natural  causes  which  the  observer  should  try  to  determine 
and  to  place  under  one  or  several  of  the  following  headings: 

Cuttings. — Apparent  date,  purpose,  silvicultural  method  used, 
if  any,  present  condition  with  especial  regard  to  whether  the 
cutting  area  is  restocking  satisfactorily. 

Bums. — Apparent  date,  cause,  present  condition  with 
especial  regard  to  whether  the  cutting  area  is  restocking  satis- 
factorily. 

Rock. — The  determining  characteristics,  such  as  "granite," 
"shale,"  etc. 

Soil. — The  simjile  name — "sandy  loam,"   "clay,"  etc. 

Ground  Cover. — Weeds,  grass  sods,  etc.  Whether  sufficient 
to  prcNcnt  natural  reproduction. 

Undergrowth. — Character  of  undergrowth,  brush,  etc.  Wheth- 
er suffKient  to  prevent  natural  regeneration. 

Young  Growth. — Seccllings,  saplintjs,  poles,  approxini.itc 
proportion   of  each,   whether   they   occur  scattered   uniformly 


THE   THEORY  AND  PRACTICE   OF  WORKING  PLANS  19 

over  area,  or  patchy  and  groupwise.  Is  the  young  growth  now 
present  sufficient  to  restock  the  area.  "This  does  not  mean," 
as  Mr.  Zon  points  out,*  "a  few  seedhngs  or  even  a  few  hundred 
seedlings  to  the  acre,  but  a  reproduction  which  is  sufficient  to 
produce  a  hundred  years  hence  a  merchantable  stand  of  timber. 
Allowing  for  the  natural  thinning  out  of  the  young  growth,  there 
must  be  at  least  between  fifteen  hundred  and  two  thousand 
seedhngs  to  the  acre  in  order  to  produce  a  merchantable  stand 
at  the  time  of  maturity.  A  few  hundred  seedhngs  per  acre  may 
be  capable  of  growing  up  and  producing  a  large  amount  of  seed, 
but  cannot  produce  a  merchantable  stand  of  timber." 

Size  and  Quality  of  Timber. — The  a\'erage  diameter  breast- 
high  of  all  timber  of  merchantable  size.  If  saw  timber,  the 
number  of  sawlogs  (i6  feet  long)  per  tree  and  per  M.  feet  board 
measure.  The  character,  i.e.,  if  unusually  clear  boled,  or  limby, 
etc.    Approximate  per  cent  of  clear  lumber. 

Condition  of  Timber. — Soundness,  rot  or  insect  attack,  etc. 

These  subjects  need  not  be  treated  exhaustively;  the  forest 
description  must,  above  all,  be  practical  and  brief. 

The  unit  of  area  in  forest  description  depends,  of  course, 
on  the  degree  of  intensity  possible  in  the  Working  Plan.  The 
ideal  unit  of  description  is  the  Stand.  The  stand  is  that  portion 
of  the  forest  which  is  so  essentially  different  in  forest  type,  in 
method  of  management,  in  component  species,  in  age,  in  density 
of  stocking,  or  in  site,  that  it  is  clearly  distinct  from  the  sur- 
rounding forest.  The  stand  as  a  unit  of  forest  description  is 
ideal,  since  it  is  at  the  same  time  the  true  unit  of  Forest  Manage- 
m.ent  and  Forest  Organization  (see  "Division  of  Area"  below). 
But  the  necessity  of  pushing  the  reconnaissance  work  and  the 
size  of  the  Working  Plan  area  often  makes  it  more  feasible  to 
confine  the  description  to  the  survey  imit — such  as  the  section — 
or  to  an  entire  watershed  (in  unsurveyed  and  very  mountainous 
country),  leaving  it  to  the  Forest  Organizer  to  combine  the 
various  descriptions  and  smooth  out  their  differences  and  dis- 

*" Results  of  Cuttings  on  Minnesota  National  Forest,"  R.  Zon,  "Pro- 
ceedings of  the  Society  of  American  Foresters,"  Vol.  VII.,  No.  i,  p.  103. 


20  TIIE    THEORY    AND   PRACTICE    OF   WORKING   PLANS 

crepancies  into  a  General  Forest  Description  for  the  Working 
Plan  (see  Chap.  III).  At  the  same  time  the  Forest  Organizer 
is  helpless  if  these  Specific  Forest  Descriptions  arc  inadequate  or 
inaccurate.  Xor  need  the  description  contain  many  words; 
for  mere  stereot>'ped  rep)etition  is  both  tiresome  and  futile. 

Division  of  Area 

The  Division  of  Area  for  purposes  of  Forest  Organization 
is  in  Euroi>e  considered  the  prerequisite  of  any  Working  Plan. 
For  the  extensive  conditions  prevailing  in  many  parts  of  America 
the  elaborate  divisions  of  area  used  in  Europe  can  well  be  waived. 
Indeed  it  is  conceivable  that  a  useful  Working  Plan  could  be 
constructed  without  any  systematic  division  of  the  area.  The 
need  for  these  divisions  grows  with  the  refinements  in  manage- 
ment, and  while  it  would  be  mere  play  in  most  American  forests 
to  mark  each  compartment  and  subcompartment  in  the  map 
or  on  the  ground,  a  skeleton  outline  of  the  salient  divisions  will 
often  sers'e  to  facilitate  and  to  systematize  the  working  of  a 
forest.    Unnecessary  divisions  must  be  avoided. 

For  these  divisions  topographic  features,  roads,  trails,  etc., 
should  be  made  the  boundaries;  even  in  Hat  country  the  hewing 
through  of  compartment  lines  is  justified  only  under  most 
intensive  conditions. 

The  customary  subdivisions  of  a  forest  are: 

The  working  figure  (syn.  working  block,  working  circle. 

Betriebsklasse). 
The  block. 
The  compartment. 
The  subcompartment  or  stand. 

The  Working  Figure  is  that  unit  which  is  to  be  managed 
with  the  idea  of  a  sustained  yield.  It  may  be  only  a  part  of  a 
single  administrative  unit  {e.g.,  National  Forest),  or  it  may 
comprise  several  such  units.  This  is  discussed  in  detail  in  the 
next  section,  "Determination  of  Method  of  Treatment." 


THE    THEORY   AND   PR.\CTICE    OF   WORKING   PLANS  21 

The  Block  is  a  convenient  subdivision  of  the  Working  Figure, 
made  to  assist  in  the  regulation  of  the  yield.  The  Block  com- 
p)rises  a  logging  unit  or  group  of  logging  units.  Since  the  division 
of  a  Block  is  entirely  topographic,  a  suitable  local  name  can 
generally  be  taken  from  some  saHent  topographic  or  cultural 
feature  contained  therein. 

The  Compartment  is  a  convenient  subdivision  of  the  Block, 
wherever  conditions  are  sufficiently  intensive  to  warrant  it.  It 
is  created  for  purposes  of  earier  orientation  in  the  woods  and  for 
faciUtating  and  systematizing  the  keeping  of  detailed  forest 
records.  Where  the  boundaries  of  compartments  are  hewn  out 
or  made  into  roads,  these  serve  the  additional  purposes  of  fire 
hnes,  logging  roads,  points  of  attack  in  cutting  series,  and  as 
convenient  units  where  game  is  beaten  from  cover.* 

The  "ultima  ratio"  of  division  of  area  is  the  Stand  or  Suh- 
compartment.  The  distinction  is  a  silvicultural  one,  i.e.,  the  Stand 
is  that  part  of  the  area  which  through  reasons  of  difference  in 
forest  type,  in  component  species,  in  age,  in  density  of  stocking, 
and  in  site  clearly  demands  a  different  method  of  treatment. 
It  is  really,  therefore,  an  independent  unit  of  cutting.  It  may 
be  large  or  it  may  be  small;  but  it  must  be  of  sufficient  size 
to  warrant  the  division,  and  of  the  right  shape — i.e.,  a  long, 
narrow  strip  might  have  sufficient  area,  but  would  nevertheless  be 
unsuitable.  Minor  differences  should  be  disregarded  in  creating 
subcompartments — ' '  de  minimis  non  curat  lex ! "  Even  under  the 
most  intensive  European  conditions  the  average  minimum  size 
of  a  Subcompartment  is  i%  to  2]/^  acres.  The  size  of  the  Sub- 
compartment  is  in  direct  ratio  to  that  of  the  forest.  With 
decreasing  size  of  the  latter  one  would  finally  reach  the 
single  tree — as  is  actually  the  case  in  the  small  wood  lot  managed 
by  the  Selection  (or  Single  Tree)  System.  Conversely,  as  the 
forest  increases  in  size  and  the  conditions  become  more  extensive, 
the  subcompartment  also  increases  in  area  until,  for  forests  of 

*  Hence  in  the  plains,  e.g.,  in  the  Prussian  pineries,  the  Compartment  is 
called  a  "Jagen" — i.e.,  a  "Hunting."  The  average  size  in  Prussia  is  25  hec- 
tares =61^  acres. 


ZI  THE    TIIEOKV    AND    PRACTICE    OF    WORKING    PLANS 

loo.ooo  to  i.ooo.cxx)  acres,  the  minimum  size  of  the  subcom- 
partment  would  he  about  40  to  lOo  acres. 

The  degree  of  difference  between  two  adjacent  forest  areas 
necessary  to  warrant  their  division  into  separate  stands  must 
be  gauged  along  the  following  lines: 

Forest  T5rpe. — DilTerenccs  in  forest  type  always  determine 
dilTerences  in  stands.  Permanent  forest  tyjx's  alone  are  to  be 
regarded  in  this  respect. 

Component  Species. — Minor  difTercnces  in  ixTcentagc  of 
mixture  or  presence  of  subsidiary  species  should  be  disregarded. 
Only  where  the  component  species  necessitate  a  diflerent  silvi- 
cultural  method  of  management  or  a  dilTerent  rotation,  or  where 
there  is  a  marked  dilTercnce  in  their  market  value,  should 
separate  stands  be  recognized.  These  dilTerences  are  seldom 
regarded  in  young  growth — i.e.,  under  one-quarter  of  the  rotation; 
a  mere  note  in  the  stand  table  suffices  to  indicate  the  difference 
and  whether  the  component  species  are  intermingled  singly  or 
groupwise. 

Age  is  detcrminati\c  of  stand  differences  especially  where 
the  regulation  is  to  be  by  age  classes  (Chap.  II).  and  where  the 
forest  is  essentially  even-aged.  In  the  younger  growth,  i.e., 
under  one-half  of  the  rotation  age,  differences  of  20-35  years 
can  be  disregarded;  a  mere  note  in  the  stand  table  suffices  to 
indicate  the  difference.  Stands  over  half  the  rotation  age  demand 
a  closer  classification;  not  over  20  years  difference  for  the  third 
quarter  of  the  rotation,  not  over  10  years  for  the  last  quarter. 
Over-mature  stands,  /.c.,over  loyears  more  than  the  rotation  age, 
should  be  segregated  as  they  are  the  especial  objects  of  an  early 
cutting. 

In  this  as  in  all  cases  of  stand  differentiation,  the  degree  of 
refinement  varies  with  the  size  of  the  forest  and  the  intensity 
of  the  management. 

Density  of  Stocking  and  Site  Quality  (iiterminc  stand  differ- 
ences where  they  are  sufficiently  striking  to  necessitate  a  dif- 
ferent method  of  management  {e.g.,  protection  forest  on  upper 
slopes). 


THE   THEORY  AND  PRACTICE   OF   WORKING  PLANS  23 

In  general  it  is  this  Necessity  for  a  Different  Method  of  Manage- 
ment which  is  determinative  of  stand  distinction.  Where  no 
striking  differences  in  type,  species,  age,  density,  or  site  occur 
the  same  method  of  management  apphes,  and  there  is  no  occasion 
to  differentiate  into  separate  stands.  Where  the  methods  of 
management  are  different  the  stands  are,  ipso  facto,  different. 
Hence  it  is  impossible  within  the  same  subcompartment  to  have 
High  Forest,  Coppice  with  Standards,  and  Straight  Coppice. 
Furthermore,  even-aged  and  uneven-aged  areas  of  High  Forest 
are  always  separated  into  separate  stands. 

Designation  of  Divisions. — Working  figures  and  blocks  are 
given  names;  compartments  are  numbered;  subcompartments 
(stands)  are  lettered.  E.g.,  a  paper-birch  thicket  in  midst  of 
spruce  compartments  on  the  lower  slopes  of  Mount  Tecumseh 
block  in  the  Waterville,  N.  H.,  basin,  would  be  designated  as 
2ga,  Tecumseh  Block,  Waterville  Figure. 

Boundaries  of  Divisions. — Before  designating  the  boundaries 
of  any  working-plan  divisions,  either  in  the  field  or  on  the  map, 
the  Forest  Organizer,  in  consultation  with  the  owner  and  the 
administrator  of  the  forest,  or  both,  should  decide  just  what 
divisions  are  to  be  made  and  on  what  basis.  The  determination 
of  working  figures  is  a  sine  qua  non,  but  whether  blocks,  com- 
partments, and  subcompartments  are  also  to  be  segregated 
depends  entirely  on  the  specific  needs  of  the  forest.  Large 
forests  should  almost  always  be  divided  into  blocks.  The 
further  subdivision  into  compartments  and  subcompartments 
is  necessary  only  where  intensive  working  plans  are  practicable. 

Having  decided  just  how  far  to  go  in  the  matter  of  divisions, 
the  Forest  Organizer  keeps  this  in  mind  during  his  preliminary 
reconnaissance  and  during  the  entire  progress  of  the  field  work. 
The  detail  of  forest  description  and  the  unit  described  depend 
on  the  extent  of  subdivisions.  That  is,  if  blocks  are  the  minimum 
divisions  possible,  the  organizer  needs  only  the  briefest  descrip- 
tions by  sections  or  other  survey  unit  and  a  mere  detailed  general 
description  by  watersheds  or  other  appropriate  logging  units, 
for  these  are  the   future  blocks.     If,  on  the  other  hand,  the 


2  4  THE   THEORY   AND    PRACTICE   OF    WORKING    PLANS 

refinements  of  compartments  and  subcompartments  are  possible 
the  unit  of  description  must  be  the  stand,  and  the  forest  descrij)- 
tion  of  each  stand  must  be  sulTicicntly  detailed  so  that  the  Forest 
Organiser  can  determine  therefrom  whether  to  make  it  a  sub- 
compartment,  and  its  function  in  regulating  the  yield. 

Obviously,  therefore,  the  provisional  boundaries  of  the 
minimum  unit  of  division  decided  upon  must  be  noted  in  the 
progress  of  the  surv'cy  and  estimate  and  noted  on  the  maji. 

As  the  work  of  gathering  the  data  progresses,  the  Forest 
Organizer  keeps  always  in  mind  the  possible  division  of  the 
forest  and,  map  in  hand,  g(K's  through  the  area  to  determine 
its  most  advantageous  arrangement.  His  task  will  be  the  easier 
if  the  forest  description  data  are  well  and  carefully  gathered. 

Stands  (subcompartments)  are  combined  into  compart- 
ments. The  boundaries  of  the  former  are  silvical  (see  above), 
of  the  latter,  topographic  and  natural  just  as  far  as  possible. 
Oftentimes  the  compartment  and  the  stand  coincide  (which  is 
especially  convenient),  or  a  stand  stretches  partly  or  wholly 
over  several  compartments.  Streams,  ditches,  ridges,  landslides, 
rock  barrens,  roads,  trails,  alienated  areas,  all  form  natural 
boundaries  for  compartments.  Only  where  these  natural  boun- 
daries are  lacking,  or  insufBcient.  is  the  cutting  through  of 
artificial  lines  permissible. 

The  compartment  varies  in  size  from  50  to  250  acres;  it  is, 
as  far  as  possible,  rectangular  or  at  least  trapezoidal  in  shape,  the 
boundary  lines  running  with  or  at  right  angles  to  the  prevailing 
local  storm  direction.  Where  artificial  lines  are  cut  through, 
those  running  with  the  prevailing  storm  direction  are  called 
"Haupt-Gesteir'  (Main  Frame)  or  "Wirtschafts  streifen" 
(Management  Stripe),  those  running  at  right  angles  thereto, 
"Xeben-Gesteir'  (Accessory  Frame)  or  "Schneussen"  or 
"Schneisen"  (Glades  [sic!]).*  The  former  average  15  to  30  feet 
in  width,  the  latter  tli  feet  to  15  feet;  in  this  way  they  serve 
as  a  network  of  logging  roads  and  fire  lines.    The  "Schneisen" 

•  In  Prussia  the  "  Haiiptgcstcllc"  are  700  to  800  yards  apart ;  the  "  Ncbcn- 
gestelle"  arc  350  to  400  yards  apart. 


THE  THEORY  AND   PR,A.CTICE   OF   WORKING   PLANS  25 

serve  also  to  strengthen  the  stand  against  windfall;  for  along 
them  develops  the  "Waldmantel''  or  "Windmantel" — i.e.,  the 
crowns  of  the  trees  on  the  border  form  an  impenetrable  mantle 
and  protect  the  interior  of  the  stand  from  windfall.  This  is 
especially  important  in  spruce  and  similar  shallow-rooted  species. 
As  the  lower  branches  show  signs  of  dying  off,  the  strip  is  widened 
so  as  to  let  in  the  necessary  additional  light  and  keep  the  forest 
mantle  intact,  until  it  reaches  a  maximum  width  of  30  or  40  feet. 
These  "Schneisen"  are  then  made  the  points  of  attack  for  the 
cutting  series,  since  the  stand  to  leeward  of  them  has  through 
its  forest  mantle  ample  protection  against  the  storms  (Chapter 
II,  Section  2). 

But,  ordinarily,  artificial  division  lines  are  not  necessary. 
As  main  Knes  can  be  chosen  the  crests  of  ridges,  the  valleys  and 
creeks;  as  secondary  lines  the  spurs  and  hogbacks  and  smaller 
tributary  creeks. 

Block  divisions  are  always  natural  and  are  chosen  on  a  large 
scale — watersheds,  drainage  basins,  are  suitable  units.  The 
single  block  may  contain  many  thousand  acres;  its  shape  is 
immaterial;  the  governing  considerations  are  logging  and  mar- 
ket conditions.  The  block  is  essentially  a  logging  unit.  Its 
segregation  requires  a  complete  knowledge  of  such  matters  as 
present  market  conditions,  lines  cf  transportation,  outlets  for 
the  timber,  and  the  probable  changes  and  developments  in  all 
three. 

How  far,  if  at  all,  the  blocks  should  coincide  with  the  admin- 
istrative divisions  such  as  ranger  districts,  must  depend  on  local 
conditions.  It  is  often  convenient  to  have  block  and  ranger 
district  coincide,  and  in  level  country,  such  as  the  Prussian 
pineries,  this  is  entirely  feasible.  But  the  purposes  of  admin- 
istrative division  are  so  different  from  those  of  the  Working  Plan 
that  the  coincidence  should  never  be  secured  at  a  sacrifice  of 
either  Forest  Administration  or  Forest  Organization. 

The  boundaries  of  blocks  and  stands  (subcompartments) 
need  not  be  marked  on  the  ground.  Compartments  must  be 
designated,  either  by  numbered  stakes  or  stones  or  both,  or  by 


L'O  THK    THEORY    AND    PRACTICE    OF   WORKING   PL.\NS 

Stencilling  the  number  of  the  compartment  in  white  paint  on 
the  bark  of  a  tree  nearest  to  the  corner  thereof.  Where  the  lines 
are  not  actually  cut  through,  their  intersections  with  roads, 
trails,  streams,  etc.,  should  be  similarly  designated.  Where 
road  or  trail  or  stream  itself  serves  as  the  boundary,  this  is  not 
necessary,  but  merely  corner  monuments  or  occasional  guide- 
monuments  are  placed. 

On  the  map  the  boundary  of  the  Working  Figure  is  marked 
by  heavy  dot  and  dash  —  .  —  ,  —  .  — ;    the  blocks  by  dashes 

;   the  compartments  by  a  dotted  line 

;     and    the    subcompartment    or 

stand  by  a  thin,  unbroken  line . 

Maps  and  Tables 

The  various  data  collected  in  the  field  should,  as  far  as 
possible,  be  entered  on  maps  and  summarized  in  tables.  In  this 
way  they  are  made  available  at  a  glance. 

Maps,  or,  at  least,  some  map  of  the  forest,  however  crude, 
are  indispensable  in  Forest  Organization.  The  forest  map 
should  contain: 

(a)  Essential  topographic  features;  contours  are  seldom 
necessary  in  level  country;  hachures  are  not  ordinarily  advisable. 

(b)  Roads  and  trails,  railroads,  houses,  barns,  and  other 
"culture." 

(c)  Boundary  (exterior)  of  the  forest;  also  all  other  interior 
holdings  by  other  owners. 

(d)  The  forest  types;  also  all  burns  and  cut-over  areas; 
all  barrens  and  all  land  under  cultivation  or  pasturage  (non- 
forest  land)  within  the  exterior  boundaries. 

A,  b,  c,  and  J  may  form  one  base  map.  or  they  may  be  made 
into  separate  maps  as  the  wealth  of  detail  necessitates  or  con- 
venience dictates.  Where  the  area  is  too  large  to  be  shown  com- 
pletely on  one  map  of  ordinary  scale  (,'2  or  i  inch  to  the  mile), 
a  small  scale  location  map  can  be  made  and  as  many  large  scale 
detail  maps  as  are  desired.    In  surveyed  country  a  separate  map 


SKETCH  MAP 

OF  PART  OF  A   BLOCK 

SHOWING  THE  ARRANGEMENT   OF 

COMPARTMENTS,  SUBCOMPARTMENTS, 

AGE  CLASSES  AND  CUTTING  SERIES. 


\V        LEGEND 

= BLOCK   BOUNDARY 
5  = COMPARTMENT  NUMBER 

—  = COMPARTMENT  BOUNDARY 
«  =SUBCOMPARTMENT   LETTER 

—  =  SUBCOMPARTMENT  BOUNDARY 
"*■  =PROGRESS  OF  CUTTING  SERIES 
35  =AGE   OF  STAND 

AGE  CLASSES 

YEARS 


1-^20 

21-40 
11 

4,-60 

61-80 
IV 

OV^ER 

Blanks 

,:i 

Fig.    1. 


28  THE    THEORY    AND    PRACTICE    OF    WORKING    PLANS 

of   each    township,    comi)ilcd    from   section   sketches,  is   ad\is- 
able. 

Arnitd  with  this  base  map  the  Forest  Organizer  sketches  in 
from  survey  notes,  detail  sketches,  and  forest  descrii)tion  the  fol- 
lowing additional  points: 

{e)  Provisional  division  of  area  into 
Blocks. 

Compartments, 
Subcompartments  or  Stands, 
all  depending  on  the  divisions  previously  decided  upon.  The 
stands  are  always  irregular  in  shape  and  must  be  combined 
into  compartments  of  suitable  size  and  shape.  Where  the  forest 
is  approximately  even-aged  and  the  method  of  regulation  is 
to  consider  age  classes,  these  should  be  entered  on  the  map  by 
writing  the  age  class  of  the  subcompartment  in  Roman  numerals 
(see  Section  i),  and  coloring  or  shading  it  accordingly.  Barrens 
and  treeless  land  are  left  blank.  The  blocks  are  also  outlined 
provisionally.  Often  the  Organizer  must  go  over  the  area,  map 
in  hand,  in  order  to  settle  some  uncertainty  on  the  ground. 
The  boundaries  had  best  be  sketched  only  in  pencil.  If  the 
original  maps  are  made  on  tracing  linen  or  on  thin  bond  paper, 
blue-prints,  or,  still  better,  \'an  Dyke  copies  can  be  used  for  this 
provisional  division  of  the  area. 

This  provisional  map  quite  suffices  until  the  final  working- 
plan  document  is  prepared,  when  the  maps  may  be  elaborated 
as  much  as  is  desired.  E.fi.,  the  age  classes  can  be  shaded  or 
colored,  the  types  colored  or  symbolized,  etc.  (see  Chaj-jter  III). 

The  prevailing  local  storm  direction  is  entered  (where  it  is 
not  known  already  it  must  be  determined;  in  a  mountainous 
region  the  storms  often  follow  the  direction  of  the  main  drainage) 
by  means  of  long  dotted  arrows  (see  Fig.  i). 

The  next  step  is  to  obtain  the  areas  of  the  various  divisions, 
types,  alienations,  etc.  This  is  most  easily  done  by  means  of  a 
planimeter.  One  decimal  place  usually  sulTices.  The  larger 
areas  are  always  measured  first —f .,(,'.,  the  blocks  before  the  com- 
partments—the  sum  of  the  smaller  divisions,  e.g..  of  compart- 


GENERAL  STAND  TABLE. 


WQ 


1 

8 

8 

4 

6 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

18 

18 

14 

1 

DIVISION 

AREA 

CompU 
(No.) 

Sub- 

compt. 

(Ilr.) 

Total 
Area 

Even  AKcd 

All  Aged 

Ctrr  OvEK 

' 

ReguUted 

UnrecuUted 

Block 
(name) 

Acres 

Area 

Average 
and  Akc 
Limiu 

Area 

Age 
Umila 

Area 

• 

Sllvi- 

cult. 
Method 

Dale 
and% 

Left 

Area 

Date 
and 

Area 

Date 
and 

A 

Tccuinsc-h 

I 
2 

3 

4 
5 

6 
7 

9 

lO 

a 
b 

104.27 
96. 

93-73 
106. 
99.20 

103. 

97- 

9950 

40. 
61. 

100.30 

104 
96 

106 
100 

100 

40 
61 

20-40 
60-80 

100-120 
140-160 

1        I-IO 
)  140-160 
160-200 

(160-200) 

94 
90 

80 

I-I50 
I-150 

I-I50 

100 

Sh.  '02 

4o';c 

3 
50 

1900 
clean 

1895 
10% 
Culls. 

50 

I9<><. 

Non. 

i 
1 

Totals. . . . 

•• 

1,000. 

607 

264 

•• 

See  Col.  5 

53 

50 

The  siivicultural  mcthofis 
may  be  designated  by  the 
symbols: 


C  =  Clear  cutting. 

C  sir  =Clear  cutting  in  strips. 

C  p  =Clcarcut  ting  in  patches  ("Well"  met  h). 

C  ss  =C"Iear  cutting  with  scattered  seed  trees. 

Sh  =Shcltcrwood  cutting. 

S  =  Selection  cutting. 

Sh-S  =Shclterwood  selection  cutting. 

Sh-G  =  "  group  " 

Sh-Str  =  "  strij) 

Sh-B  =  "  border  " 


t  NL  =  thousand  feet,  board  measure. 


ING  FIGURE,  AI 

iEA.. 

...AC 

RES 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

- 

27 

2S 

29 

STAND 

DESCRIPTION 

INCREMENT 

iductive 

Stand  by  Species 

Curr.  Annual 

Pure, 
Mixed. 
Kind  of 
MLx- 
ture 

Den- 
sity of 
Stock- 
ing 

Site 
Qual- 
ity 

Young 
Growth 

suffi- 
cient to 

Re- 
stock? 

Remarks 

Species 
Spruce 

Species 
Fir 

MiscellE 
Hardw 

ineous 
oods 

Cds. 

% 

Rea- 
sons 

M. 

Cds. 

M. 

Cds. 

M. 

Vol. 

200 

25 

F. 

I.O 

I 

Yes 

Thrifty 

•5 

I  M. 

400 

35 

P. 

•9 

I-II 

No 

" 

•7 

2.8  M. 

700 

30 

P. 

.8 

IV 

Yes 

" 

I. 

7M. 

900 

45 

P. 

.8 

II 

No 

" 

I. 

9M. 

Rock 

600 

300 

M. 
singly 

•7 

IV 

Yes 

'■ 

9M. 

•• 

1,100 

75 

P. 

.6 

III 

Half 

Mature 

•5 

5.5  M. 

Pasture 

600 

300 

M. 
singly 

.8 

III-IV 

No 

Grnd.  fire 

■7 

6.3  M. 

440 

60 

•• 

P. 

•3 

III 

Half 

Mature 

•5 

2.5  M. 

.. 

Birch 

80 

P. 

1.0 

II-III 

No 

Old  burns 

I. 

8  cds. 

•• 

900 

•• 

P. 

•5 

II-III 

Yes 

Decadent; 
fire  scars 

•3 

2.7  M. 

100 

Aspen 

20 

M. 
Grps. 

.1 

II 

No 

Bad  shape 
old  burn 

.2 

.2M. 

5.840 

970 

100 

THE    THEORY   AXD   PR.A.CTICE    OF   WORKING   PLANS  29 

ments,  should  check  with  the  area  of  the  larger  unit  (block) 
containing  them.  Minor  errors  can  be  proportioned.  Roads, 
streams,  boundary  lines  which  have  been  cut  through,  etc.,  are 
seldom  calculated  as  separate  areas  unless  they  are  excessively 
wide,  e.g.,  more  than  20  feet. 

Tables  are  now  drawn  up  to  contain  these  and  other  data 
which  can  be  summarized.    These  may  be: 

(a)  AHenation  tables  (status). 

(6)  Stand  tables  (volume  by  species,  classes  of  timber,  units 
of  area,  etc.). 

(c)  Area  tables  (by  types,  by  divisions  of  area). 

(d)  Age-class  table  (comparison  with  the  normal). 

Any  or  all  of  these  tables  may  be  constructed  as  the  data  warrant 
and  as  there  is  occasion  for  them.  An  alienation  table  is  necessary 
only  where  there  are  many  interior  holdings,  or  where  the  status 
is  comphcated.  Stand  tables  are  practically  a  necessity.  Area 
tables  are  also  almost  indispensable  in  a  well-regulated  working 
plan.  An  age-class  table  is  necessary  only  where  the  distribu- 
tion of  the  age  classes  plays  a  part  in  the  regulation  of  the  yield 
(Chapter  II).  Tables  (b)  and  (c),to  gether  with  abbreviated  notes 
on  site,  density,  age,  and  salient  silvical  characteristics,  can  be 
combined  into  the  following  General  Stand  Table. 

The  particular  form  which  this  table  takes  should  be  varied 
to  meet  the  needs  of  the  working  plan  in  question.  The  purpose 
is  to  give  the  essential  data  for  the  regulation  of  the  yield;  these 
essential  data  vary  with  the  method  of  regulation  which  is 
chosen  (Chapter  II).  In  the  appendix  example  the  table  has 
been  made  as  complete  as  is  necessary  even  under  intensive 
conditions.  The  hypothetical  data  would  have  required  a 
correspondingly  intensive  estimate  and  forest  description.  The 
division  is  by  stands.  In  compartments  i,  2,  3,  4,  7,  and  10 
the  stand  and  the  compartment  coincide;  compartments  6 
and  8  are  one  stand;  compartment  9  has  two  stands  or  sub- 
compartments. 

These  data  will  be  required  for  only  those  forests  which 
permit  of  an  intensive  management.    However,  the  same  form 


30  THE   THEORY  AND  PRAC  TR  E    OF    WORKING   PL.\NS 

of  table,  with  minor  modifications,  applies  to  even  the  most 
extensive  conditions.    For  example: 

If  the  estimate  and  description  is  by  suney  units,  e.g..  by 
sections,  quarter-sections,  or  even  forties  (reconnaissance),  the 
arrangement  of  the  columns  would  be  varied  so  that  Col.  2 
would  be  township  and  section,  Col.  3  the  quarter-section  or 
forty.  Cols.  5,  7,  9,  11,  13,  and  15  would  give  the  aiea,  not  in 
acres,  but  in  per  cent  of  total,  Cols.  6,  8,  10,  12,  14,  and  16  would 
usually  indicate  the  age  only  as  Over-mature  (0),  Mature  {M), 
or  Young  (I')  (see  Section  2.  above).  Cols.  23-29  would  usually 
be  recorded  separately  for  each  tNpe. 

If  the  estimate  and  description  are  lumped  for  the  entire  area 
of  one  type  within  the  same  watershed.  Col.  2  would  be  the 
name  of  the  t}pe,  Col.  3  would  be  blank.  Cols.  5  to  22  inclusive 
would  be  as  in  the  paragraph  above,  Cols.  23  and  26  would  be 
ver}'  general,  Cols.  24  and  25  would  fall  away,  but  Cols.  28  and  29 
would  be  retained. 

From  the  above  data,  a  rough  age-class  table  can,  and,  for 
all  methods  of  regulating  yield  by  the  distribution  of  the  age 
classes  (Chapter  II),  should  be  constructed.  .Vssuming  in  the 
hypothetical  data  of  the  general  stand  table  above  that  the 
rotation  is  160  years,  the  form  of  age-class  table  would  then  be 
as  follows:  Age  Class  Table  A. 

In  the  above  example  if  only  the  s}Tnbols  "0,"  'M/,"  and 
"F"  are  used,  the  comparison  would  be:  Age  Class  Table  B. 

Were  the  intermediate  steps  O/.l/  and  V  }f  used  also  to 
designate  the  ai)proximate  age  of  the  stands,  the  table  would 
lead:  Age  Class  Table  C. 


THE   THEORY  AND  PR.A.CTICE   OF   WORKING  PLANS 


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THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING  PLANS  33 

SECTION   THREE 
DETERMINATION  OF  METHOD  OF  TREATMENT 

Governing  Conditions 

The  method  of  treatment  of  any  given  forest  depends  on 
the  wishes  and  purposes  of  its  owner.  It  is  very  necessary  that 
these  fundamentals  be  decided  in  consultation  between  the 
owner  and  administrator,  and  the  Forest  Organizer,  for  the 
working  plan  must  be  arranged  accordingly. 

Three  main  issues  must  be  decided  before  any  complete 
working  plan  is  possible: 

1.  The  unit  of  regulation. 

2.  The  silvicultural  method  of  management. 

3.  Object  of  management. 

A  fourth,  Rotation,  is  necessary  to  all  but  one  method  of  regu- 
lating the  yield  (Chapter  II). 

The  Unit  of  Regulation 

The  unit  of  regulation  is  that  area  which  is  to  be  managed 
for  a  sustained  yield.  It  is  usually  a  working  figure  (synonyms, 
working  block,  working  circle,  Betriebsklasse).  The  working 
figure  may  or  may  not  coincide  with  the  administrative  unit, 
e.g.,  the  single  national  forest.  Where  species,  topography,  and 
markets  are  similar,  or  even  identical,  the  creation  of  separate 
working  figures  is  unnecessary  and  undesirable.  The  blocks 
serve  every  purpose  of  subdivision. 

Again,  there  may  be  several  working  figures  within  the  same 
administrative  unit — e.g.,  high  forest  and  coppice  should  never 
occur  in  the  same  working  figure. 

The  cases  necessitating  separate  working  figures  are: 

High  forest. 

Coppice  with  standards. 

3 


34  THK    THEORY   AND   PRACTICE   OF    WORKING    PLANS 

Coppice. 

DilTcrcnccs  in  ownership. 

Areas  far  ajiart  or  of  very  large  size. 

In  creating  working  figures,  the  doctrine  of  sustained  yield 
must  be  treated  broadly.  A  sustained  yield  presupposes  three 
things: 

(i)  A  sustained  market  with  attendant  transportation  facil- 
ities rendering  every  part  of  the  forest  accessible  now  or  pro- 
gressively so  in  the  near  future. 

(2)  An  area  ample,  under  the  silvicultural  methods  chosen, 
to  supply  this  sustained  market. 

(3)  Stable  market  prices  for  the  lumber  and  other  forest 
products. 

These  three  factors  do  not  always  coincide  with  the  admin- 
istrative units.  The  boundary  of  the  administrative  unit  is 
purely  for  convenience  in  the  management  of  the  forest;  the 
boundary  of  the  working  figure  is,  as  far  as  limitations  of  owner- 
ship permit,  an  economic  one  within  which  the  marketing  of 
timber  is  controlled  by  certain  factors  of  consumption  or  dis- 
tribution. Economic  reasons  may  warrant  the  over-cutting 
on  one  administrative  unit  and  the  under-cutting  on  another, 
but  if  a  sustained  yield  from  the  entire  market  unit  is  main- 
tained it  is  of  small  moment  if  the  stand  on  one  or  more  of  the 
administrative  subdivisions  is  over-cut. 

This  broad  construction  is  of  course  adapted  to  the  extensive 
conditions  existing  in  most  parts  of  America.  In  Europe,  e.g., 
in  Prussia,  it  has  long  been  customary  to  require  a  sustained  yield 
by  administrative  units — i.e.,  for  each  oberforsterei  or  sui)er- 
visor's  area — recently  it  has  been  extended  in  Prussia  to  cover 
each  ranger's  district!  But  in  America  the  unit  of  regulation. 
the  working  figure,  must  be  practical,  must  be  the  murkct  unit, 
just  as  the  subdivision,  the  block,  must  be  the  logging  unit. 

Where  administrative  unit  areas  belonging  to  the  same 
owner  are  far  apart  or  exceedingly  large,  they  are  not  included 
in  the  same  working  figures.  E.g.,  it  would  be  preposterous  to 
make  a  single  working  i)hin  for  the  two  divit^ions  of  the  Florida 


THE   THEORY   AND   PR,A.CTICE    OF   WORKING   PLANS  35 

National  Forest  or  for  the  whole  complex  of  contiguous  national 
forests  in  Washington  and  Oregon. 

But  it  is  entirely  correct  and  logical  to  combine,  e.g.,  the 
contiguous  and  similar  Coconino  and  Tusayan  National  Forests 
in  northern  Arizona.  The  administrative  boundary  separating 
these  two  national  forests  is  a  purely  arbitrary  one;  they  are 
essentially  the  same  in  character  and  composition,  and  are  parts 
of  the  same  market  unit. 

The  working  figure  is  given  some  convenient  local  name 
which  is  simple  and  characteristic.  It  is  conceivable  that  one 
working  figure  might  be  within  another — e.g.,  a  coppice  of  oak 
might  be  within  a  pine  forest.  If  the  coppice  is  of  sufificient  size 
to  warrant  the  distinction,  it  should  be  made  a  separate  working 
figure  within  the  other,  for  it  requires  a  different  method  of 
organization  from  that  accorded  high  forest.  A  forest  in  process 
of  conversion,  e.g.,  from  coppice  to  standards,  is  also  considered 
a  separate  working  figure,  and  requires  a  separate  working  plan. 
Forests  or  parts  of  forests  managed  chiefly  for  turpentine  or 
other  unique  forest  products  require  a  separate  working  plan, 
and  constitute  distinct  working  figures. 

SiLVICULTURAL   METHOD   OF   MANAGEMENT 

Having  decided  upon  the  unit  of  regulation,  the  Organizer, 
in  conference  with  owner  and  administrator,  should  decide, 
provisionally,  upon  the  silvicultural  method  of  management; 
for  the  method  of  regulating  the  yield  varies  with  the  silvi- 
cultural system. 

The  first  point  to  determine  is  whether  the  forest  is  to  be 
managed  as: 

High  forest. 

Coppice  with  standards, 
or  Coppice, 
or  is  to  be  converted  from  one  of  these  forms  to  another.     If 
high  forest  is  chosen,  the  method  of  regeneration  must  be  deter- 
mined provisionally  as: 


3G  THE    THEORY    AND    PRACTICE    OF    WORKING    PLANS 

I.  Arlilicial  (sowing  or  planting)  =  C/rar  Culling. 
II.  Natural. 

(A)  Natural  re-sceding  from  shcltcrwood. 

(B)  Natural  rc-secding  from  adjacent  stands. 

In  (A)  the  rc-sccding  is  by  means  of  seed  trees  left  more  or 
less  equally  distributed  over  the  cutting  area.  Where  these 
seed  trees  are  of  all  ages,  i.e.,  where  all  trees  of  seed-bearing  age 
take  part  in  regenerating  the  stand  (as  in  virgin  forest),  the 
method  is  called  that  of  Selection  Culling.  Where  the  seed  trees 
left  are  approximately  even-aged  and  the  merchantable  timber 
is  removed  in  successive  cuttings  at  relatively  short  intervals, 
the  method  is  that  of  Shcllerwood  Culling.  In  the  Selection 
Cutting,  the  period  of  regeneration  stretches  over  the  entire 
rotation,  the  resulting  stand  is  all-aged;  in  the  Sheltcrwood 
Cutting  the  period  of  regeneration  is  definite,  theoretically  not 
to  exceed  10-15  years,  the  resulting  stand  is  approximately 
even-aged. 

In  practice  the  two  methods  (Selection  and  Siielterwood) 
are  often  combined  for  greater  flexibility,  and  then  the  period 
of  regeneration  may  be  30  to  50  years.  This  is  called  the  Shellcr- 
'dOod-Selcclion  Culling. 

Modifications  of  the  Shelterwood  system  are  the  Shellcncood 
Group  Culling,  the  Shcllerwood  Slrip  Culling,  and  the  S/iellerwood 
Border  Culling.* 

In  (B)  the  re-seeding  is  by  seed  from  adjacent  stands  (often 
supplemented  by  isolated  seed  trees  of  windfirm  species),  which 
presupposes  species  with  a  light  seed  of  great  carrying  power. 
The  cutting  is  either  Clear  Culling  in  Slri/)s  or  Clear  Culling  in 
Palches  ("Well"  method)  or  Clear  Culling  icilli  Scallcrcd  Seed 
Trees. 

The  various  systems  grade  into  each  other,  and  even  the  two 
extremes — Clear  Cutting  and  Selection  Cutting--touch  each 
other;  for  as  the  clear  cut  area  grows  smaller  and  smaller  (Clear 
Cutting  in  Patches  or  "Well"  method),  the  point  is  finally 

•See  "Proceedings  5vxricty  of  .Ameriran  Foresters,"  \'ol.  \'\\.,  No.  2\ 
"Border  Cuttings:    A  Suggested  Departure  in  .American  Silviculture." 


PLATE  IV. 


Fig.  1. — A  Compartment  Regenerated  by  Shelterwood  Cutting,  Baden. 

Courtesy  of  Mr.  Lincoln  Crowell. 


Fig.  2. — A  Compartment  Kegencrated  by  Border  Culling,  V\  urttemberg. 
Courtesy  of  Mr.  Lincoln  Crowell. 


THE    THEORY   AND   PIL\CTICE    OF    WORKING   PLANS  37 

reached  where  the  clear  cut  area  is  that  occupied  by  a 
single  tree — the  Selection  Cutting.  Thus  the  snake  bites  its 
own  tail! 

The  determination  of  the  silvicultural  method  to  be  prac- 
tised will  require  the  best  judgment  and  experience  of  the  Forest 
Organizer.  The  regulation  of  the  yield  will  vary  accordingly. 
Large  regular  areas,  clear  cut  or  regenerated  by  shelterwood 
system,  permit  of  a  working  plan  by  area — i.e.,  where  the  annual 
cut  is  determined  by  the  area — whereas  the  small,  irregular 
areas  demand  a  working  plan  by  volume  and  increment  (see 
Chapter  II).  Complete  forest  descriptions  and  frequent  observa- 
tions within  the  forest  will  assist  greatly  in  determining  the 
best  silvicultural  system  to  pursue. 

Object  of  Management 

At  the  working-plan  conference  between  owner,  admin- 
istrator, and  Organizer,  the  object  for  which  the  forest  is  to  be 
managed  must  be  decided,  i.e.,  whether 

1.  For  maximum  productivity  in  timber  (forest  rent  theory), 

2.  For  maximum  productivity  in  money  (soil  rent  theory), 

3.  For  protection, 

4.  For  aesthetic  purposes,  or  for  the  chase, 

5.  For  local  needs, 

or  how  far  each  or  all  of  these  considerations  is  to  govern. 

If  the  forest  is  to  be  a  productive  one,  the  next  point  to  decide 
is  the  class  of  product  desired : 

1.  Sawtimber, 

2.  Cord  wood, 

3.  Mining  timber, 

4.  Turpentine,  etc. 

It  must  also  be  decided  whether  the  yield  is  to  be  sustained, 
and,  if  so,  whether  periodic  or  annual,  or  the  forest  managed  on  a 
purely  exploitation  basis. 

The  satisfactory  solution  of  all  these  questions  demands  a 
thorough  knowledge  of  forest  policy  on  the  part  of  the  Organizer. 


38         the  theory  and  practice  of  working  plans 

The  Rotation 

In  detcmiining  the  rotation  age,  the  considerations  of  greatest 
moment  arc  the  silvicultural  methods  chosen  and  the  objects  of 
management  decided  upon.  The  conception  of  a  rotation  is 
essential  to  a  sustained  yield.  This  rotation  age  may  be  only 
a  tentative  figure  or  it  may  be  definitely  determined;  indeed, 
as  shown  in  Chai)ter  II.  it  is  cjuite  possible  to  regulate  the  yield 
without  having  determined  the  rotation,  by  increment  and  age- 
class  distribution  alone  (Hufnagl's  method),  but  the  feeling 
of  a  rotation  underlies  in  all  cases. 

\'arious  kinds  of  rotations  are  distinguished  as  follows: 

1.  Physical. 

2.  Greatest  volume, 

3.  Technical. 

4.  Greatest  income, 

5.  Financial, 

6.  Latent. 

Without  trespassing  too  far  on  the  domain  of  Forest  Mensura- 
tion, it  should  be  noted  that: 

1.  The  Physical  Rotation  is  either  that  which  is  best  suited 
for  the  natural  regeneration  of  a  species  on  given  site  conditions, 
and  for  certain  silvicultural  systems;  or  that  which  coincides 
with  the  natural  span  of  life  for  the  stand.  In  practice  the 
physical  rotation  is  restricted  to  protection  forests,  luxury 
forests  (for  icsthetic  and  hunting  purposes),  and,  occasionally, 
to  coppice. 

2.  The  Rotation  oj Greatest  Volume  (syn.  Silvicultural  Rotation, 
Economic  Rotation)  coincides  with  the  age  of  the  maximum 
mean  annual  increment.  This  maximum  corresponds  to  the 
point  where  the  plotted  curves  of  current  annual  increment 
and  mean  annual  increment  cross. 

.V  The  Technical  Rotation  is  that  at  which  the  stand  has 
produced  the  timber  or  other  material  best  suited  for  certain 
purj^oses — e.g.,  the  rotation  for  turix-ntine  production  is  a  tech- 
nical one.    Its  application  is  necessarily  limited. 


THE    THEORY   AND    PRACTICE    OF   WORKING   PLANS  39 

4.  The  Rotation  of  Greatest  Income  or  that  of  highest  forest  rent 
is  that  age  at  which  the  stand  yields  the  largest  income  cal- 
culated by  the  arithmetical  mean.  In  contradistinction  to  (5) 
the  financial  or  highest  soil-rent  rotation,  the  soil  is  not  con- 
sidered as  interest-bearing  capital,  but  as  a  necessary  presuppo- 
sition for  any  forest  (Waldreinertrag) .  The  income  per  cent  is 
determined  by  the  formula: 

Forest  Income  less  Forest  Expense  _    Income 

Value  of  Forest  Capital  per  cent. 

This  is  figured  for  various  tentative  rotations;  that  rotation, 
which  shows  the  highest  income  per  cent  is  then  finally  adopted. 

5.  The  Financial  Rotation  is  that  of  highest  net  income,  or 
that  of  highest  soil  rent.  Herein  (in  contradistinction  to  4,  the 
rotation  of  highest  forest  rent)  the  soil  is  considered  as  interest- 
bearing  capital.  The  rate  of  interest  must  be  determined  accord- 
ing to  local  requirements,  wishes  of  owner,  etc.  Then  the  index 
per  cent,  W,  is  determined  by  the  formula 

W  =  {a  +  horc)^^ 

where  a  =  volume  increment,  6  =  quaUty  increment,  c  =  value 
increment  or  depreciation,  A  =  the  arithmetical  mean  of  present 
and  future  yield,  and  S  the  soil  capital  with  interest  thereon.* 
That  rotationage  is  then  adopted  where  PT  is  at  a  maximum. 

6.  The  Latent  Rotation.  For  every  distribution  of  the  age 
classes  there  exists  a  certain  rotation  which  is  normal  in  so  far 

that  by  its  adoption  the  normal  annual  cut  -  (area -^  by  rotation) 

can  be  utilized  without  disturbing  the  sustained  character  of 
the  yield.  This  latent  rotation  is  just  double  the  average  age 
of  the  working  figure.  For  example,  if  the  stand  shows  the 
following  distribution  of  the  age  classes: 

*  For  further  details  see  Schlich:  "Manual  of  Forestry,"  Vol.  III.,  3rd 
edition,  pp.  194-201.  London:  Bradbury,  Agnew  &  Co.,  Ltd.  Since  this 
method  of  calculating  the  rotation  is  suitable  only  to  very  intensive  con- 
ditions, it  would  serve  no  useful  purpose  to  elaborate  it  at  this  point. 


40 


THE   THEORY   AND    PRACTICE    OF    WORKING    PLANS 


Total  Am 
mcna 

i-ao  yre. 

II 

a  1-40  yrB. 

III 
41-60  yrfc 

IV 
61-Soyra. 

V 
81  and  over 

Blanks 
(uastkd) 

2,l6o 

1      5.0 

496 

465 

443 

214 

32 

then  the  average  age  would  be 


32X  0=  o 

510X10=  5,100 
496X30  =  14,880 
465X50  =  23.250 
443X70  =  31.010 
214X90  =  19,260 


Total,  2,160 


93.5f>o 


93,500-^-2,160  =  43  years  =  the  average  age 

The  latent  rotation  then  =  43X2  =86,  or  practically  80  to  90 
years.  This  method  fails  in  stands  of  the  same  age,  or  in  entirely 
young  or  otherwise  abnormal  working  figures.  It  also,  of  course, 
fails  in  selection  forest,  since  this  docs  not  usually  permit  of  the 
construction  of  an  age-class  table. 

The  kind  of  rotation  to  adopt  depends  on  matters  of  polity, 
to  wit: 

1.  Conditions  of  ownership,  wishes  and  puq:)ose  of  owner. 

2.  The  market  and  logging  conditions. 

3.  The  site. 

4.  The  character  of  the  stand. 

1.  The  State  can  afford  a  higher  rotation  than  can  the  private 
owner;  furthermore,  it  is  the  duty  of  the  State  to  grow  timber 
not  only  for  profit,  but  to  supply  future  demand,  espccialh'  in 
sizes  requiring  long  rotations. 

2.  The  market  conditions  influence  the  rotation,  inasmuch 
as  good  markets  and  easy  accessibility  permit  shorter  rotations, 
whereas  forests  further  from  market  and  more  difficult  of  access 
necessitate  a  longer  rotation  to  make  logging  at  all  profitable. 
The  decreasing  area  of  virgin  forest  and  the  rapidly  increasing 
I)()pulati()n  justify  the  consideration  of  fulurc  as  well  as  present 
market  conditions.  It  is  reasonable  to  e.xpect  that  the  price  of 
larger  timber  will  increase  jiroportionately  more  than  that  of 


THE   THEORY  AND  PRACTICE   OF  WORKING  PLANS 


41 


smaller  sizes,  and  hence  it  may  be  good  economy,  in  view  of 
future  market  prices,  to  adopt  a  longer  rotation  and  plan  to  grow- 
larger  sizes  of  timber  than  present  market  prices  would  warrant. 

3.  The  more  the  site  is  adapted  to  a  certain  species,  the  longer 
can  the  rotation  be.  Conversely  the  more  rapid  growth  on  good 
sites  will  often  tend  to  shorten  the  rotation. 

4.  The  character  of  the  stands  influences  the  rotation  in 
respect  to  their  quality  and  species.  The  better  the  quality  of  the 
stand,  the  longer  can  the  rotation  be;  the  less  thrifty  stands 
will  often  have  to  be  cut  before  the  regular  rotation  age.  The 
species  in  mixed  stands  can  usually  be  worked  on  the  same  rota- 
tion unless  they  mature  at  different  ages  or  are  markedly  different 
in  value,  e.g.,  a  mixed  forest  of  Engelmann  spruce  and  white  fir 
{A.  concolor)  will  often  require  a  higher  rotation  for  the  spruce 
than  for  the  fir;  because  the  fir  deteriorates  at  an  earlier  age 
and  becomes  almost  valueless  at  a  time  when  the  spruce  is  just 
fully  matured. 

Where  the  species  are  not  intermingled  but  form  pure  groups 
or  stands  in  the  same  working  figure,  the  rotation  is  determined 
separately  for  each  species  comprising  more  than  one-third  of 
the  total  volume,  and  the  results  are  then  averaged. 

The  customary  rotations  are,  in  Europe,  for  the  chief  species 
about  as  follows: 


Smaller 
Tracts: 

Larger 
Tracts: 


Plains  and  Intermediate 

Foothills  Mountains 

Pine 60-  80  years  70-  90  years 

Spruce 60-80     "  60-100     " 

Fir  and  beech 80-100     "  80-100     " 

Pine 80-120     "  80-120     " 

Spruce 80-100     "  80-120     " 

Fir  and  beech 80-120     "  100-120     " 


High 
Mountains 


80-100  years 
80-120     " 

80-120  years 
100-140     " 


CIIAI'TEU    II 

REGULATION  OF  YIELD 

I  )i:  FIX  mux 

Regulation  of  the  yield  is  the  determination,  for  some  years 
in  advance,  of  the  allowed  annual  cut.  This  regulation  is  the  very 
essence  ot  the  working  plan. 

The  space  of  years  for  which  the  %  ield  is  regulated  depends 
on  the  frequency  of  accurate  revisions  of  the  working  j)lan. 
Ten  years  is  the  customary  minimum  period  for  which  the  yield 
is  regulated;  at  the  end  of  that  time*  the  working  plan  is  revised 
and  the  yield  regulated  for  the  following  decade.  Where  period 
methods  (see  below)  are  used,  the  yield  is  regulated  in  detail 
for  the  first  period — twenty  years  in  advancef — or  even  for  the 
first  two  periods — forty  years  in  advancej — in  detail  for  the 
first  period  of  twenty  years  and  roughly  for  the  second  period. 
Despite  this  regulation,  so  far  in  advance,  exhaustive  revisions 
are  undertaken  at  the  end  of  each  decade.  Frec}uent  revisions 
are  an  absolute  essential,  and  the  regulation  of  yield  for  many 
years  in  advance,  or  even  for  the  whole  rotation,  is  little  better 
than  a  useless  play. 

The  allowed  annual  cut  is  fixed:  First,  in  respect  to  ho'd> 
7)1  uc h  ca.n  be  cut,  i.e.,  the  determination  of  yield;  second,  in  re- 
spect to  where  it  is  to  be  cut,  i.e.,  the  distribution  of  yield. 
This  chapter  is  accordingly  divided  into  sections  to  correspond 
with  these  two  divisions  of  the  subject  and  a  third  to  treat  special 
cases  of  yield  regulation. 


•  In  Saxony,  the  revision  is  undertaken  every  five  years:   the  plan  is  for 
ten  years. 

t  Prussia.         J  Austria 

42 


THE  THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  WORKING  "PLANS  43 

SECTION  ONE 

DETERMINATION  OF  YIELD 

The  determination  of  the  yield  is  either  by  area,  by  volume, 
or  by  both.  In  this  determination  the  bases  are  the  foundations 
of  working  plans  already  considered  (Chapter  I),  namely: 

1.  Increment. 

2.  Growing  stock  and  distribution  of  the  age  classes. 

3.  Silvicultural  method  of  management. 

4.  Object  of  management. 

5.  Rotation. 

Of  these,  increment  is  the  most  important,  i.e.,  the  increment 
as  it  actually  is.*  No  sustained  yield  is  possible  which  disregards 
the  increment. 

According  as  the  determination  of  yield  is  to  be  by  area, 
by  volume,  or  by  both,  the  following  methods  have  been  evolved: 

1.  A.  By  area. 
B.  By  volume. 

I.  Based  solely  on  growing  stock. 

2.  I.  Von  Mantel's  method. 

3.  2.  Methode  de  Masson. 

II.  Based  solely  on  increment. 

4.  I.  By  current  annual  increment  (Hufnagl). 

III.  Based  on  Growing  Stock  and  Increment. 

5.  I.  Austrian  formula  (Kameraltaxe) . 

6.  2.  Karl's  method. 

7.  3.  Hundeshagen's  method. 

8.  4.  Breymann's  method. 

9.  5.  Heyer's  method. 


"Formula 
Methods." 


*  "The  main  task  for  the  regulation  of  yield,  here  as  well  as  abroad,  is 
doubtless  the  determination  of  the  annual  or  periodic  increment — the  incre- 
ment as  it  actually  is.  This  is  under  all  circumstances  the  most  important 
basis  and  standard  of  comparison  for  the  yield." — Prof.  Dr.  Martin,  Tharandt, 
in  private  letter  to  the  writer,  January  21,  1912. 


44  THE   THEORY  AND  PILVCTICE   OF   WORKING   PLANS 

TV.  Based  on  Diameter  Classes. 

10.  I.  French  method  (Methode  de  1883). 

11.  2.  Indian  method. 

12.  3.  Diameter  class  method  (Hufnagl). 

C.  By  Area  and  Volume. 
I.  For  entire  forest. 

13.  I.  Russian  method. 
II.  Based  on  age  classes. 

14.  I.  Direct  method  (Hufnagl). 

15.  2.  Hufnagl's  method. 

16.  3.  The    stand    method    (Judeich's    "  Bestandswirt- 

schaft''). 
III.  Based  on  periods  ("Fachwerks  Mcthodcn"). 
(  I.  Area-period  method  ("Flachenfachwerk")- 

17.  j  2.  Volume-period  method  ("Massenfachwerk"). 

I  3.  Area-and-volume  period   (" Kombiniertes   Fach- 
werk"). 

These  seventeen  methods  of  determining  the  yield  wi'l  be 
considered  seriatim;  for  each  will  be  given  (a)  the  description 
of  the  method,  (b)  an  example  of  its  working,  and  (c)  an  estimate 
of  its  value  and  application,  with  especial  regard  to  American 
conditions.  The  following  symbols  are  used:  F  =  volume, 
r  =  rotation,  A  =  area,  a  =  age,  M.  =  thousand  feet  board  measure, 
c^5  =  cords,  /■  =  increment. 

I.  BY   AREA. 

(a)  Description  of  Method. — The  forest  or  main  diNisions 
thereof  (working  figures,  blocks)  is  divided  into  a  number  of 
cutting  areas — annual  or  periodic — corresponding  to  the  rotation 
age.  These  annual  or  periodic  cutting  areas  are  marked  on  the 
ground;  annually  or  periodically,  a  cutting  area  is  logged.  The 
size  of  the  cutting  areas  is  either  exactly  equal  or  else  is  equal 
to  liu-  reduced  area  corresponding  to  the  varying  site  qualities. 
In  order  to  give  more  accurate  expression  to  the  distribution  of 
the  age  classes,  Hufnagl  has  suggested  that  each  annual  cutting 


THE    THEORY   AND   PIL\CTICE    OF    WORKING   PLANS  45 

,.,.,,        ,       .  average  asre  a 

area     be   multiplied   by   the  factor:    , — .,  ^.     ^ —     or   — 

half  the  rotation  r 

2 

thus  securing  the  maximum  sustained  annual  cutting  area. 

(b)  Example:  I.  Area  not  reduced.  II.  Area  reduced.  III. 
Hufnagl  variation. 

I.  A  block  contains  i,ooo  acres.     It  is  to  be  managed  on  a 

rotation  of  i6o  years.    The  annual  cutting  area  =  —  =  62.5  acres. 

If  the  cutting  period  is  20  years,  then  the  periodic  cutting  area 
will  be  62.5X20=1,250  acres. 

II.  By  REDUCED  area:  Each  site  quality  produces  for  a  fully 
stocked  stand  a  varying  volume  at  the  rotation  age.  These  vol- 
umes can  either  be  secured  empirically  or  by  means  of  normal 
yield  tables.  E.g.,  for  Scotch  pine  it  has  been  determined  that 
the  maximum  yield  (Site  I)  for  a  100-year  rotation  is  102  M. 
per  acre,  the  minimum  (Site  V)  34  M.  per  acre.  The  interme- 
diate grades  are : 

Site  quality  1 102  M.  per  acre 

"      II 85  M.    "       " 

"    III 68  M.    "       " 

"     IV 51  M.    ''       '' 

''       V 34  M.    "       " 

Further  intermediate  grades  would  be,  e.g.: 

Site  quahty  I/II 93^  M.  per  acre 

etc. 

On  the  basis  of  site  quahty  I  the  per  cents  of  the  other  site 
qualities  would  be: 

Site  quality  I i .  00 

'      "    n 83   1/11=91.5 

''    III 66 

"         "     IV 50 

"         "       V 33 

These  are  the  factors  of  reduction  to  the  common  site  quahty  (I). 
If,  in  the  above  instance,  the  actual  area  of  1,000  acres  was 


46  THE   THEORY   AND   PRACTICE    OF   WORKING   PLANS 

composed  of  200  acres  of  each  site  quality  (I  to  V).  then  the 

reduced  area  would  be: 

Site  quality  I,  original  200  acres,  reduced  :;oo  acres. 

"       II,        "        200     "  "        166     " 

"     III,        "        200     "  "        132     " 

"     IV,        "       200     "  "        100     " 

"       V,        "       200     "  "          66     " 


Total,      1,000  acres,  reduced  664  acres. 

The  annual  or  the  periodic  cutting  area  is,  therefore,  varied 
according  to  the  site  quality  or  qualities  in  the  area  allotted. 

„        ,  ,         .  reduced   area       664 

E.P.,  the  annual  cutting  area  = -~-. = =6.64  acres. 

*  *  rotation  100 

Similarly  the  periodic  cutting  area  =  6.64 X  20  =  132.8  acres.  If 
these  132.8  acres  were  all  to  be  distributed  among  site  quahty  III 
it  would  actually  require: 

132.8X1.515  =  201  acres; 
for,  from  the  above  table  of  percentages,  it  requires: 

1.2  acres  of  site  quality  II  to  equal  i  acre  of  site  quality  I. 
1. 515  "  "  "  III  "  "  I  "  "  "  I. 
2.0        "          "         "      IV  "     "      I     "       "  "       1. 

3.03  "  "        "       V  "     "      I     "      "  "       I. 


cut  by  the 


III.  HuFNAGL  varlvtion:    Hufnagl    multiplies    the    annual 
average  age 
r 
2 

Taking  the  example  of  age-class  distribution  and  average  age 
given  under  Latent  Rotation  (Chapter  I,  Section  3),  this  would 
be: 

Area  =2,160  acres. 

Rotation  =      80  years. 

Average  age  =      43  years. 

.'.  the  annual  cutting  area  =  -„ —  X  —  =20  acres. 
*  80         40        -^ 


THE    THEORY   AND    PRACTICE    OF    WORKING   PLANS  4/ 

(c)  Value  and  Application. — The  area  method  is  the  oldest 
of  yield  regulation,  dating  from  the  sixteenth  century.  It  enables 
the  transition  from  mere  exploitation  to  a  conservative  manage- 
ment. 

Its  great  advantage  is  simphcity. 

Its  great  disadvantages  are: 

1.  The  rotation  is  assumed  as  a  fixed  value,  whereas  in 
reality  it  is  a  mere  approximation  and  varies  with  the  interior 
(management,  accidents,  etc.)  and  exterior  (markets,  desires  of 
owner)  changes  to  which  every  forest  is  subjected. 

2.  The  method  is  too  straight-laced  to  permit  the  free  play 
necessary  for  the  best  silviculture,  e.g.,  natural  regeneration. 

It  is,  therefore,  restricted  in  application  to  forests  with  fairly 
uniform  conditions,  i.e.,  to  coppice,  coppice  with  standards,  and 
well-developed  selection  forests. 

2.  BY  VOLUME.— BASED   SOLELY  ON  GROWING  STOCK.    VON 
MANTEL'S  METHOD. 

(a)  Description  of  Method.— This  is  the  simplest  of  the 
*' formula  methods."  Indeed  it  is  hardly  to  be  ranked  with  them 
except  in  having  the  same  underlying  principle,  namely,  that  the 
real  yield  must  bear  the  same  relation  to  the  real  growing  stock 
as  the  normal  yield  (or,  what  is  the  same,  the  normal  increment) 
hears  to  the  normal  growing  stock. 

Von  Mantel  considers  that  the  growing  stock  =  the  real  incre- 

/i  X  ^\ 
ment  (mean  annual)  multiplied  by  half  of  the  rotation    (       — ) ; 

for  under  normal  conditions  the  half  of  that  which  grows  during 
a  rotation  should  be  utilized  and  the  other  half  remain  as  growing 
stock.    This  can  be  shown  diagrammatically  on  next  page. 

The  yield  during  a  rotation  therefore  =  >^  the  total  volume 
produced  or  =  all  the  volume  produced  during  half  of  the  rota- 
tion. The  annual  yield  therefore  equals  the  volume -^- by  half 
the  number  of  years  in  the  rotation,  or,  as  Von  Mantel  puts  it: 

V 

Y  (yield,  annual)  =  


48 


THE    THEORY   AND   PR.\CTICE   OF   WORKING    PLANS 


(b)  Example. — A  forest  contains  6,8 lo  M.  feet  board  measure 
of  spruce  and  fir  to  be  managed  on  a  i6o-year  rotation.    The 

V  6,8lO  6.810       „  r      .  u  J 

annual  yield  =  —  =  -z. "  =  C  ~  =  851.250  feet  board  measure. 


160 
2 


80 


c)  Value  and  Application. — The  greatest  advantage  of  \'on 
Mantel's   formula  is  its   utter  simplicity;   for  it  requires  only 


the  total  volume  and  the  rotation.    It  is  thereby  adapted  to  the 
most  meagre  data. 

Its  disadvantages  are:  i.  That  it  assumes  a  dcfmitc  rotation 
which  is  altogether  impossible  in  view  of  the  disturbing  emer- 
gencies  which   always   arise.      2.  While   it   docs   automatically 


THE  THEORY  AND  PRACTICE   OF  WORKING  PLANS  49 

reduce  any  surplus  or  deficit  in  the  growing  stock,  it  requires 
half  the  rotation  to  do  so. 

Its  use  is,  therefore,  restricted  to  determining  the  yield 
provisionally  before  detailed  data  can  be  obtained,  and  as  a 
check  on  the  results  obtained  by  other  methods. 

3.  BY  VOLUME.— BASED    SOLELY  ON  GROWING  STOCK.      ME- 

THODE  DE  MASSON. 

(a)  Description  of  Method. — Masson's  formula  closely  ap- 
proximates that  of  Von  Mantel,  but  is  claimed  by  the  French 
to  have  been  developed  independently,  although  based  on  the 
same  principles.    The  formula  is: 

2V 
Annual  yield  =    — 

(b)  Example. — A    forest    contains     6,8 lo    M.    feet    board 

measure  of  spruce  and  fir  to  be  managed  on  a  i6o-year  rotation. 

2  V       13,620 
The  annual  yield  =  —  =  — - —  ^  851,250  feet  board  measure. 

(c)  Value  and  Application. — Precisely  as  in  Von  Mantel's 
method  (No.  2). 

4.  BY  VOLUME.— BASED  SOLELY  ON  INCREMENT.  BY  CUR- 

RENT ANNUAL  INCREMENT  (HUFNAGL). 

(a)  Description  of  Method. — The  chief  data  required  are 
an  exact  determination  of  the  current  annual  increment  and  an 
age-class  table.  The  increment  must  be  determined  for  all 
stands  above  a  minimum  age  of,  say,  twenty  years  (correspond- 
ing to  the  minimum  merchantable  diameter) .  The  age-class  dis- 
tribution must  approach  the  normal  relation.  On  these  premises 
the  allowed  annual  cut  is  taken  directly  as  the  sum  of  the  annual 
increment  for  the  entire  working  figure.  It  is  a  further  essential 
of  this  method  that  the  increment  and  growing  stock  be  redeter- 
mined, by  identical  means,  at  frequent,  regular  intervals  of  not 
to  exceed  ten  years.  If  the  growing  stock  then  shows  an  unin- 
tentional diminution,  the  yield  was  set  at  too  high  a  figure;  if, 
conversely,  the  growing  stock,  at  the  time  of  revision,  shows  an 
unintentional  increase,  the  yield  was  set  too  low. 

4 


50 


THE    THEORY    AND    PR.\CTICE    OF    WORKING    PLANS 


The  method  can  also  be  applied  to  uneven-aged  forests  if 
the  diameter  of  all  trees  above  the  minimum  merchantable 
be  determined.  CaHpering  is  preferable,  but  ocular  estimates 
in  three-inch  classes,  as  described  under  "Estimates,"  Chapter  I, 
Section  2,  will  suffice  in  default  thereof.  The  diameter-class  data, 
when  checked  by  sample  plots,  will  determine  the  relative  nor- 
mality of  the  entire  stand.  If  sufficiently  normal,  the  annual  cut 
is  taken  as  directly  equal  to  the  increment;  if  the  growing  stock 
is  excessive,  more  than  the  increment  is  taken;  if  the  growing 
stock  is  deficient,  less  than  the  increment  is  taken. 

Periodic  remcasuremcnts  of  the  growing  stock  and  increment 
are  essential.  This  should  be  done  every  ten,  or,  at  most,  every 
twenty  years. 

(b)  Example. — I  Even-aged  stand;    II  uneven-aged   stand. 

I.  The  age-class  table  shows  a  fairly  normal  distribution 
(such  as  that  under  "Rotation,"  Chapter  I,  Section  3),  over  1,000 
acres  of  even-aged  spruce  forest  with  a  rotation  of  80  years,  as 
follows: 


Class 
years 

Area 
(acres) 

Site 
Quality 

Dens- 
ity 

Total  Increment 

^^:. 

Increment 
per  acre  ♦ 

ft.b.m. 

Fully 
Stocked 
ft.b.m. 

Reduced  for 
Density 
ft.b.m. 

I 

II 
III 

IV 

V 

Blanks 

1-20 

496 
46§ 
443 
214 
32 

II/III 

I.O 

•7 

•4 

.5 

•3 
.0 

612 

312,120 

312,120 
472,192 

306.714 

289,944 

50,204 

10 
21  —40 

30 
41-60 

50 
61-80 

1,309 
782 

579.887 
167.348 

70 

81-120 

100 

Total 

2,160 

l.4.^M74 

-  annual 

cut 

From  yield  table  for  spruce,  Schwappach. 


THE   THEORY   AND   PRACTICE    OF    WORKING   PLANS 


51 


II.  The  diameter-class  distribution  of  a  certain  loo-acre  area 
of  pure  Western  yellow  pine,*  uneven  aged,  is  assumed  to  be  as 
follows : 


D.  B.  H.,  inches 
IO-I2 

13-15 
16-18 
19-21 
22-24 

25-27 
28-30 

31-33 


Average  Volume          Number  of  Trees  Total  \''olume 

6oft.b.m.  240  14,400  ft. b.m. 

iioft.b.m.  440  48,400  ft. b.m. 

190  ft. b.m.  770  146,300  ft. b.m. 

310  ft.b.m.  720  223,200  ft. b.m. 

480  ft.b.m.  580  278,400  ft.b.m. 

710  ft.b.m.  410  291,100  ft.b.m. 

1,020  ft.b.m.  190  193,800  ft.b.m. 

1,410  ft.b.m.  70  98,700  ft.b.m. 


This  distribution,  as  determined  by  sample  plots,  is  fairly 
normal.  Hence  the  current  annual  increment  per  cent  is  applied 
directly  to  the  volume  of  each  diameter  class,  e.g.. 

14,400  feet  b.m.     X4      Tct    =      576  feet  b.m. 


48,400  " 

"       X2.87%   =    1,389     ' 

146,300   " 

"       X2.04%   =  2,985     ' 

223,200    " 

"       Xi.49%   =  3-326     ' 

278,400    " 

"      Xi.04%   =  2,895     ' 

291,100    " 

"       X  .84%   =  2,445     ' 

193,800   " 

"       X  .66%   =    1,279     ' 

98,700  " 

"      X  .54%   =      533     ' 

15,428  ft.b.m.  =  annual  cut. 

(c)  Value  and  Application. — This  method  is  adapted  to  all 
classes  of  stands,  but  requires  an  amount  and  kind  of  data  which 
would  enable  the  use  of  a  more  accurate  method  of  determining 
the  yield.  Its  chief  use  is,  therefore,  as  a  check  on  other  methods; 
for,  after  all,  the  increment  is  an  important  gauge  of  the  correct- 
ness of  the  annual — or  periodic — cut. 

Where  yield  tables  are  wanting  for  even-aged  stands,  or  incre- 
ment figures  for  uneven-aged  stands,  an  increment  borer  will 
give  the  desired  data  (see  Chapter  I,  Section  i,  Increment)  for 


*  Data  chiefly  from  Bulletin  loi,  Forest  Service,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agri- 
culture. 

t  Adapted  from  European  yield  tables. 


0*2  THF.    TllKOKY    AND    PRACTICE    OF    WORKING    PLANS 

representative  trees  of  each  age  class  or  each  diameter  class,  and 
these  data  tan  then  be  apj)lied  directly  to  the  entire  stand. 

5.  BY  VOLUME.— BASED  ON  GROWING  STOCK  AND  INCREMENT. 
AUSTRIAN  FORMULA    KAMERALTAXE). 

(a)  Description  of  Method.  —This,  and  the  other  so-called 
"formula  methods''  ("Vorrats  methoden"),  is  characterized  by 
the  fact  that  the  allowed  annual  cut  is  determined,  apart  from 
any  plan  of  management,  by  mathematical  calculation  based  on  a 
formula.  The  main  factors  in  this  calculation  are  the  growing 
stock  and  the  increment.  The  aim  in  regulating  the  yield  is  to 
have  the  actual  growing  stock  (]')  and  the  actual  increment  (/) 
ai)proach  the  normal  forest  characterized  by  a  normal  growing 
stock  (nV)  and  a  normal  increment  («/).  The  period  of  time 
in  which  the  actual  growing  stock  is  to  be  brought  to  point  of 
normality  is  taken  as  the  whole  rotation.  This  is  to  be  accom- 
plished by  heavier  cutting  if  the  actual  growing  stock  is  greater 
than  the  normal  growing  stock,  and  lighter  cutting  if  the  actual 
growing  stock  is  less  than  the  normal  growing  stock. 

The  normal  growing  stock  is  calculated   by  the  formula— 

where   /  =  the  actual  mean  annual  increment.*     In  even-aged 
stands  it  can  also  be  calculated  from  yield  tables  by  the  formula 

n(a  +  b  +  c  +.  .  .  — ),  where   a,  b,  c  .  .  .  m   are    the   values 
2 


♦  Harrington  Moore,  in  an  article  on  "  Methods  of  Regulating  the  Cut 
on  National  Forests,"  Proceedings  of  the  Society  of  .American  Foresters, 
Vol.  \II.,  No.  I,  has  suggested  that:  "  If,  as  is  almost  always  the  case,  the  real 
growing  stock  (Gr)  is  made  up  of  only  merchantable  trees,  it  will  be  manifestly 
unfair  to  compare  with  this  real  growing  stock  a  normal  growing  stock,  which 
includes  the  small  as  well  as  the  large  trees.  The  result  would  be  too  small 
a  surplus  or  too  large  a  deficit.  To  obtain  a  more  correct  surplus  or  deficit 
a  normal  growing  stock  which  includes  only  the  merchantable  trees  should 

/  X  /c 
be  used.     This  can  be  found  by  substituting  for  R  in  the  expression  -  ^ 

.1  quantity,  R',  equal  to  the  difference  between  the  age  of  the  merchantable 
trees  and  the  rotation.  For  example,  if  the  rotation  is  200  years,  an<l  trees 
become  merchantable  at  60  years,  the  growing  stock  of  merchantable  trees 

,  ,  ,     /  X  140.                   /  X200,, 
necessary  to  leave  on  the  ana   would  be  mstcad  ol . 


THE    THEORY   AND   PRACTICE    OF   WORKING   PLANS  53 

given  in  the  table  for  each  age  class,  n  the  number  of  age  classes, 
and  m  the  volume  at  the  rotation  age. 

V-nV 
The  main  formula  then  follows:  y  (annual  cut)  =  i  A . 

Here  again  i  is  the  actual  mean  annual  increment,  not  the  normal.* 

(b)  Example. — An    uneven-aged  forest    of    Western  yellow 

pine  contains  3,500,000  feet  board  measure  of  timber  12  inches 

diameter  breast  high  and  over  on  1,000  acres.    The  actual  mean 

annual  increment  (Chapter  I,  Section  i)  is  assumed  as  0.7  per 

cent,  or  49,000  feet  board  measure ;     the  rotation  as  200  years. 

^,                 ,           .             ,    rl      200  X  24,500  . 

The    normal  growmg  stock  —  = =  2,450,000  feet 

V  —  71V 
board  measure.    The  annual  cut  (y)  then  =  i  -\-  =  24,500 

^,icoo,ooo  —  2,4e;o,ooo  1,050,000 

+  '-' j;^ =  -'4.500  +  -^—  =  24,500+5,250 

=  29,750  feet  board  measure.  In  this  case  there  appears  to  be  an 
excess  growing  stock.  Adopting  Mr.  Moore's  variation  (see  foot- 
note), the  result  would  be: 

.                          r'i       140  X  24,500 
Aormal     growmg     stock    =  —  = =  1,715,000 

feet  board  measure. 

rr,  1     ^/  \     •  ,  V-'>^V  ,  3^500.000- 1.7 1 5 >ooQ 

The  annual  cut(y)=z+ =  24,500+"^ 

^'  r  -t'j      '  200 

=  24,500+17,850  =  42,350  feet  board  measure. 

This,  however,  is  not  strictly  accurate,  due  to  the  failure  to 
consider  the  increment  per  acre  of  young  growth.  "If  the  area 
of  young  growth  below  merchantable  size  is  known,  the  incre- 
ment can  be  found  by  determining  the  number  of  merchantable 
trees  per  acre  which  there  would  be  if  the  stand  were  about 
normally  stocked  and  contained  no  other  age  classes.  The 
volume  of  such  a  stand  divided  by  the  average  age  of  merchant- 


*  There  has  been  some  dispute  about  this,  but  the  matter  seems  settled 
by  the  authoritative  pronouncement  of  Judeich,  "Forsteinrichtung,"  6th 
Edition,  p.  360,  and  Martin,  "Forsteinrichtung,"  pp.  216-217. 


54  THE   THEORY   AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING   PLANS 

able  trees  will  give  the  increment  per  acre  of  the  young  growth 
below  merchantable  size."  * 

E.g.,  area  of  young  growth  under  12  inches  diameter  breast 
high  =  6  per  cent  of  total  area  (1,000  acres)  or  60  acres.  A 
normally  stocked  stand  of  Western  }'ellow  pine   12  inches  in 

diameter  (about  60  years  old)  contains  vS^o  board  fcctt;  ^""  '"*    = 

'     '  20 

292.5  board  feet  =  the  increment  per  acre  of  the  young  growth 
below  merchantable  size.  There  are  60  such  acres,  hence 
292.5X60=  17.550  feet  board  measure.  But  the  average  density 
of  stocking  is  only  .7,  so  the  real  increment  =  12,285.  The  incre- 
ment of  the  merchantable  timber  has  alread}'  been  figured  at 
24,500  feet;    this  +  the  12,285  increment  on  unmerchantable  tim- 

ber  =  36,785.     Then—  =  ^^°      3  >7  5  ^  2,574,950  feet    board 

measure. 

rr^i  1       /  N     .     V—nV       ^    „       ^,soo,ooo— 2, 1:74,050 

The  annual  cut(y)  =  ^+  -  =  36,785+^^  oi^tiVA, 

v^/  r  o  u   0  ^  200 

=  41,410  feet  board  measure. 

(c)  Value  and  Application. — Dating  from  a  decree  of  the 
Vienna  Hofkammer  in  1788  (whence  the  name  "Kameraltaxe"), 
this  method  has  won  the  cognomen  of  "Austrian,"  although 
in  Austria  it  is  now  used  only  as  a  check  on  other  methods 
of  determining  the  yield  (see  Part  Two).  Adapted  to  rather 
primitive  conditions,  especially  to  irregular,  uneven-aged  forests, 
the  Austrian  formula  has  grave  disadvantages  in  that  it  assumes 
both  i  and  «F  as  constants,  whereas  in  consequence  of  cutting 
and  unforeseen  contingencies  they  are  always  changing,  e.g., 
becoming  better  by  corr(;ct  cutting,  becoming  worse  by  storms, 
windfall,  etc.  In  view  of  these  changing  constants  the  formula 
cannot  secure  even  an  approach  to  normal  during  the  next 
rotation  unless  the  yield  is  revised  at  least  every  ten  years. 
This  revision  is  not  a  part  of  the  original  Kameraltaxe  any  more 


*  BarrinRton  Moore,  ibid. 

t  From  Tables  10  and  19,  Bulletin  101,  Forest  Service,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agric. 


THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING  PLANS  55 

than  is  a  plan  of  cutting  (Distribution  of  Yield)  so  essential  to  a 
well  regulated  forest;  for,  as  shown  in  Chapter  I,  Section  i, 
no  forest  can  be  normal  unless  increment  and  age-class  distribu- 
tion are  normal.  The  normal  increment  and  normal  growing 
stock  alone  do  not  suffice.  Hence  this  and  the  other  "formula 
methods"  are  all  makeshifts  (except  as  a  check  on  other  methods) 
and  must  be  replaced  by  other  and  better  methods  as  soon  as 
conditions  warrant. 

ReaHzing  these  deficiencies,  Huber  varied  the  Austrian 
method  by  using  the  current  annual  instead  of  the  mean  annual 
increment  and  distributing  the  surplus  or  deficiency  in  growing 
stock  over  the  whole  rotation  in  a  decreasing  series  instead  of 
equally.  This  variation  is,  therefore,  a  transition  to  the  methods 
of  Karl  and  of  Hundeshagen,  which  are  considered  below  (6 
and  7). 

6.  BY  VOLUME.— BASED  ON  GROWING  STOCK  AND  INCREMENT. 
KARL'S  METHOD. 

(a)  Description  of  Method. — This  method  was  probably 
suggested  by  the  Austrian  formula  just  described  (No.  5)  with 
Huber's  modification.  Karl  takes  the  allowed  annual  cut  as 
equal  to  the  real  current  annual  increment  plus  or  minus  the 
excess  or  deficiency  of  the  actual  growing  stock  when  compared 
with  the  normal  growing  stock,  distributed  over  a  period  of  A 
years  instead  of  over  the  entire  rotation,  as  in  the  Austrian 
formula.  The  formula  for  the  cut  for  the  first  year  therefore 
.       V  -nV 

This  formula  would  apply  accurately  to  subsequent  years 
only  if  i  were  determined  anew  each  year;  for  it  changes  con- 
stantly (see  above  under  5).  In  order  to  accomplish  the  approach 
to  normal  without  an  annual  recalculation  of  i,  a  third  expression  is 

•   i  —  ni 
added  to  the  formula,  namely :  — -^ —  X  n  where  ni  =  the  normal 

current  annual  increment  and  w  =  the  number  of  years  which 
have  elapsed  since  the  estimates  were  made.    In  the  first  year 


56  THE   THEORY   AND   PR.\CTICE   OF   WORKING   PLANS 

«  =  0,  and  hence  the  entire  expression  =  O.  In  consequence 
of  the  increase  of  n  the  annual  cut  would  really  have  to  be 
redetermined  each  year,  but,  for  convenience,  Karl  presupposes 
the  adoption  of  ten-year  periods  and  makes  «  =  5.  i.e..  the  middle 
of  the  ten-year  period  during  which  the  annual  yield  is  to  be 
equal.  At  the  end  of  the  ten-year  period  a  revision  of  the  \icld 
takes  place. 

This  third  expression  of  the  formula  is  always  given  the  sign 
opposite  that  of  the  preceding  expression. 

The  entire  formula  is  therefore: 

y  (annual  cut)  =  t  ±  -  '^  \      \      )"• 

In  addition  a  simple  plan  of  cutting  (distribution  of  yield)  is 
drawn  up  as  a  guide  in  the  management  of  the  forest.  However, 
this  plan  of  cutting  plays  no  part  in  the  determination  of  the 
yield,  which  is  by  formula  alone. 

(b)  Example. — An  uneven-aged  forest  of  Western  yellow 
pine  contains  3,500,000  feet  board  measure  of  timber  12  inches 
and  over  diameter  breast  high,  on  1,000  acres.  The  actual 
mean  annual  increment  is  assumed  at  .7  per  cent,   the  rotation 

ft 
at  200  years.     iiV  then  =  —  =  2.450,000  feet  board  measure.* 

A,  the  period  of  distribution,  is  assumed  as  one-quarter  of  the 
rotation,  or  50  years. f  i,  the  actual  current  annual  increment,  is 
averaged  (sec  Chapter  I,  Section  i)  for  the  whole  stand*  ami.  re- 
duced for  the  density  of  stocking,  is  assumed  as=  i  per  cent  or,  in 
volume,  =35,000  feet  board  measure.  The  normal  current  an- 
nual increment  is  obtained  from  fully  stocked  sample  plots  (or 
from  yield  tables  in  even-aged  stands),  and  is  assumed  as  1.2 
per  cent,  or  42,000  feet  board  measure.      (With  a  density  of  .85 


*  It  can  also,  in  even  a^cd  stands,  bo  calculated  from  vicid  table  (see 
No.  5). 

t  This  period  of  distribution  is  chosen  according  to  jucal  exi^jencics;  it 
had  best  be  somewhat  longer  than  seems  necessary,  in  order  to  avoid  |)ossible 
errors  and  to  remain  on  the  side  of  conservatism. 


THE  THEORY  AND  PR.\CTICE   OF  WORKING  PLANS  57 

this  would  =  an  actual  increment  of  1.2 X.85  =  1.02  or,  roughly, 
one  per  cent.) 

The  annual  cut  by  the  formula  then  =  i  ±  — ^ —  +  f  — ^ — J  n 

^,(500,000  —  2,41:0,000         Ai;,ooo  —  42,ooo\ 
=  35.OCO  +   ii--^-— «.^ (45^_^4^     J  ^ 

35,000  +  21,000  —  (140)  5  =  55,300  feet  beard  measure  equals 
annual  cut. 

Adopting  Mr,  Moore's  variation  of  /  instead  of  r  in  develop- 
ing 7iV  (see  No.  5),  wF  =  1,715,000  feet  board  measure.     The 

V  —  nV        (i  ~  'yii\ 
annual  cut  then  equals  i  ±  — ^ q=    I — ^ — )  n  =  35,000  + 


A 

00c 
50  V  50 


3,500,000  -  1,715,000        /35.000  -  42,ooo\ 

( ~ )  5=  35,000+35,700 


—  700  =  70,000  feet  board  measure  equals  annual  cut. 

Calculating  the  increment  on  the  area  of  young  growth,  as 
was  done  under  No.  5,  the  result  would  be:    iornV,  2,574,950 

V  -nV 

feet  board  measure.     The  annual  cut  then  equals  i  ± ^ q= 

fi  —  ni\  .  , 

^ — ^ — )  n  =  35,000+12,285  (the  mean  annual  mcrement  on  the 

unmerchantable   young   growth,    conservative   since    less   than 

1     .  N         S'5oo,ooo  —  2.574,050 

the     current      annual    mcrement)    +  '-~ -^ — ^^ 

50 
/35,ooo  —  42, 000  \ 
V    .Q )  5  =  35,000  +  12,285  +  18,501  -  700  =  65,- 

086  feet  board  measure  equals  annual  cut. 

(c)  Value    and    Application. — Karl's    method,    which    dates 

from  1838,  shows  an  advantage  over  the  Austrian  formula  in  so 

far  as  it  uses  the  current  annual  instead  of  the  mean  aimual 

increment,  and  in  that  it  distributes  the  excess  or  deficit  over  a 

period  adapted  to  local  conditions  instead  of  arbitrarily  over  the 

whole  rotation.     However,  it  is  incorrect  in  making  the  third 

ft  —  ni\ 
expression  \~"a     )  "  always  bear  a  sign  opposite  that  of  the 


58  Tin:   THKORY  AND  PR.\CTICE   OF  WORKING   PLANS 

V  -  nV 
expression         .     -    directly  preceding  it.     'I  his  would  presume 

that  an  increase  or  decrease  of  the  actual  growing  stock  is  always 
followed  by  an  increase  or  decrease  in  the  actual  current  annual 
increment.  But  the  exact  opposite  can  happen,  c.i^.,  if  overmature 
stands  are  rei)laced  by  thrifty  young  growth  or  if.  contrariwise, 
the  overmature  stock  is  allowed  to  accumulate.  Karl's  error 
probably  arose  through  considering  the  volume  of  a  forest's 
growing  stock  as  comparable  to  a  sum  of  mone\'  which  bears  more 
interest  as  it  increases  in  size.    Jadeich*  therefore  considers  the 

third  expression  (        «      )  "  '^''^  ^"'''>'  incorrect.  i)ut  unnecessary 
in  view  of  the  ten-}ear  revisions;   which  would  reduce  the  form- 
ula iov  =  i~  and  would  make  thi-  \alues  in  the  above 
A 

three  examples,  56,000,  70,700,  and  65.786  feet  board  measure 
respectively,  the  expression  y      1     j  "  "^  7^-**^     falling   away    in 

each  case.  The  only  remaining  difference  between  Karl's  formula 
and  the  Austrian  formula  is,  then,  the  use  of  current  instead  of 
mean  annual  increment  and  of  a  suitable  period  for  distributing 
the  surplus  or  deficit — 50  years  in  this  case.  There  seems  to 
be  no  reason  why  the  latter  modification  can  not  be  apjilied 
directly  to  the  Austrian  formula  (Xo.   5)  so  that   it  reads: 

V  -  nV  , 
y  =  i  +  -  J  whereupon  the  \alues  in  the  three  examples 

under  (5)  would  become: 

/  ^  ,    3.500,000  -  2,450,000 

(i)  24,500  +  =  45>500  feet  b.m. 


*  Lon-y's  "  Handbiicli  <kr  I'orstwissrnschaft,"  :•(!  l"<i.,  \'(>!.  III.,  |)p. 
421-2. 

t  This  is  Heyer's  formula  as  niven  by  Martin's  "Die  Forsteinriiluun^;." 
2d  Ed.,  p.  67,  but  Judeirh,  who  made  a  s|)ecial  study  of  this  point,  considers 
it  as  under  9  Ix-low,  and  his  precedent  has  been  followed,  although  the  results 
are  exactly  identical.     (See  example  under  .No.  9.) 


THE  THEORY  AND  PR.A.CTICE   OF  WORKING  PLANS  59 

/     N  •?,  COO  ,000—  10,715,00c  ^  r         ,     1 

(2)  24,500  +  '^^ — ; — -^-^ =  60,200  feet  b.m. 

/     ^  ,  S, 500,000    —     2,574,050  „^     . 

(3)  36,785  +  ^^^ ^^   '^^   ^^     =  55,286  feet  b.m. 

With.  Judeich's  suggested  modification,  the  value  of  Karl's 
formula  is  as  a  rough  method  in  irregular  stands  or  as  a  check 
upon  other  methods  of  regulating  the  yield.  For  this  purpose 
either  it  or  the  just  suggested  modification  of  the  Austrian 
formula  may  be  used  according  as  the  current  or  the  mean 
annual  increment  has  been  determined. 

7.  BY  VOLUME.— BASED  ON  GROWING  STOCK  AND  INCREMENT. 
HUNDESHAGEN'S  METHOD. 

"  (a)  Description  of  Method. — Hundeshagen  conceives  of  the 

increment  or  yield  as  the  interest  on  the  growing  stock  and 

assumes  that  the  actual  yield  is  to  the  actual  growing  stock  as  the 

y       ny 
normal  vield    is    to  the    normal   growing    stock,   or:    —  =  ^ 

transposed  this  is  y  =  v  ^^  which  is  the  Hundeshagen  formula. 

11 V 
Hundeshagen  calls  the  factor-^  the  "use  percent"   ("Xutz- 

ungs  prozent").    If  nv  is  calculated  by  means  of  the  mean  annual 

/  r  j  \       ,       .       ,  .    ,      ny       2      ^^ 

mcrement   11?=  —    and  nv  is  taken  as  =  i,  then—  =  -.      Hun- 
\  2  /  '  nv       r 

deshagen,  however,  calculates  nv  by  means  of  yield  tables  (see 
method  for  even-aged  stands  under  No.  5).  v  is  the  volume 
actually  present  in  the  forest. 

Hundeshagen  suggests  a  short-cut  method  wherein  for  cal- 
culating nv  and  v  only  those  stands  are  to  be  considered  whose 

f 

age  exceeds  -  and  thereby  a  "partial  use  per  cent"  obtained. 

(b)  Example. — An  uneven-aged  forest  of  Western  yellow  pine 
contains  3,500,000  feet  board  measure  of  timber  12  inches  and 
over  diameter  breast  high,  on  1,000  acres.  The  mean  annual 
increment  (i)    is  assumed  at  .7  per    cent,  the  rotation  at  2co 


CO  THE    THKOkY    ANU    PKACTRK    OF    WORKING    PLANS 

years.    Disregarding  Hundcshagc-n's  nulhod  of  dflornuninj;  n:  by 

means  of  yield  tallies  and  taking —  =  --  =  =   .01,  the  ior- 

nv       r       200 

mula  gives- 

y=  v~   =  t'X.oi  =3,5cx),cxx)X.oi  =3S,ooo    feet   board  measure 

71V 

equals  annual  cut. 

This  result  is  identical  with  that  oijtained  by  \'on  Mantel's 
formula  (\o.  4)  or  by  the  Austrian  formula  (\o.  5)  modified 
(as  suggested  under  Xo.  6)  by  making  the  period  of  distribution 
of  excess  or  deficit  ecjual  half  the  rotation,  e.g.: 
V  —  nv 

>■  =  '+- r 

2 

Ijut  iiv  =  — 

2 
U  -1  (^'^\  ,  /24.500X200\ 

hence  y  =  t  +  v—\-~j=  24.500+  3.500,000—  I  j 

2  2 

=  24,500  +  10,500  ==  35,000  feet  board  measure  equals  annual 
cut. 

(c)  Value  and  Application.  -This  method,  jniblished  b\' 
Hundeshagen  in  182 1,  was  really  discovered  by  Paulsen  in  17Q5, 
though  Hundeshagen  never  knew  of  the  hitter's  work  until  1830. 
It  presents  no  advantages  over  the  methods  already  (k-scribed 
and  some  very  substantial  disadvantages: 

(i)  The  assumption  that  the  actual  yiehl  is  to  tiie  actual 
growing  stock  as  the  normal  yield  is  to  the  normal  growing 
stock  is  not  always  correct,  especiall}  not  where  there  are  over- 
mature and  deteriorating  stands  in  the  forest. 

(2)  The  value  of  v  changes  constantly,  hence,  to  be  strictly 
accurate,  y  would  have  to  be  redetermined  annually. 

(3)  The  method  i)rovides  no  definite  ju-riod  for  the  distribu- 
tion of  surplus  or  saving  of  deficit    in   the  growing  stock.     A 


THE  THEORY  AND  PRACTICE   OF  WORKING  PLANS  61 

cutting  plan  is  permissible,  but  does  not  affect  the  volume  of 
the  cut  as  determined  by  the  formula.  Hence  under  the  method, 
overmature  stands  can  be  dragged  through  many  years  if  the 
growing  stock  is  excessive  or  immature  stands  cut  off  though  the 
growing  stock  is  already  deficient. 

The  only  real  use  of  the  formula  in  irregular,  uneven-aged 
stands  is  as  a  check  on  other  methods.  Its  use  in  even-aged 
stands  presupposes  normal  yield  tables  and  regulated  conditions, 
neither  of  which  exist  in  America  at  present  nor  will  exist  for 
some  time  to  come. 

8.  BY  VOLUME.— BASED  ON  GROWING  STOCK  AND  INCREMENT. 
BREYMANN'S  METHOD. 

(a)  Description  of  Method. — Based  on  Hundeshagen's  for- 
mula, Breymann  assumed  that  the  actual  yield  is  to  the  normal 
yield  as  the  actual  average  age  is  to  the  normal  average  age  of  a 

stand.    Hence  y  =  7iy       (a  =  age).  Now  ny  =  ni  (mean annual 

increment)  and  na  =  — ,     The  average  age  can  be  determined 

either  by  area  according  to  the  formula: 

a  =       r    I  V  I   /        wherein  A,  fi,  Jz,  etc.,  equal  the  area  of  the 
71+72+73 

various  age  classes  and  ai,  ao,  a^,  etc.,  equal  their  respective  aver- 
age age  (see  examples  under  "  Distribution  of  the  Age  Classes, " 
Chapter  I,  Section  i,  and  under  "The  Latent  Rotation,"  Chapter 
I,  Section  3, ''Rotation")  or  else  the  average  age  can  be  deter- 
mined by  volume  according  to  the  formula: 

2jl   _[_  2/2   _|_  j^3 

a  =  -. ^ ;:  wherein  v\  v',  v\  etc.,  equal  the  volumes  of  the 

v^      V-      v^ 

a'      a-     a' 
various  age  or  diameter  classes  and  a,  a",  a',  etc.,  their  respective 
age  (see  example  under  "Distribution    of    the    Age   Classes," 
Chapter  I,  Section  i). 

(b)  Example. — A  forest  of  Western  yellow  pine  containing 
3,500,000  feet  board  measure    of  timber   12  inches  and  over 


G2  TIIE   THEORY   ANT)  PRACTICE   OF   WORKING   PLANS 

diameter  breast  high,  on  i,ooo  acres,  is  essentially  uneven-aged, 
but  shows  three  distinct  diameter  classes:  12  to  18  inches, 
average  14  inches  ("Black  Jacks''),  and  20  inches  and  over, 
average  26  inches  ("yellow  pine").  The  volume  of  the  former 
is  20  per  cent  of  the  total,  or  700,000  feet  board  measure;  the 
volume  of  the  latter  is  80  per  cent  of  the  total,  or  2,800,000  feet 
board  measure.  The  average  age  of  a  14-inch  "Black  Jack'' 
is  70.5  years,  of  a  26-inch  "yellow  pine''  285  years.*  Then  by  the 
formula, 

!»'  +  ?-      700,000  +  2,800,000  3.soo,ooo 

?'      v      700,000      2,800,000      10,000  +  9,818 
a'      a-  70  285 

The  adopted  rotation  is,  however,  only  200  years,  hence 

''       200  _,  ... 

na  =  -  =     -  =  100.      The  current  mean  annual  increment  is 
2         2 

placed  at  0.7  per  cent,  or  24.500  feet  board  measure.  By  the 
formula 

y  =  «>',^  =  24,500 


(         )  =24.500  X  1.76  =  43,120  feet  board 


measure,  equals  annual  cut. 

(c)  Value  and  Application. — This  method,  promulgated  by 
Breymann  in  1854,  aims  in  common  with  the  other  "formula 
methods"  to  secure  an  approach  of  the  actual  growing  stock 
toward  the  normal  growing  stock.  However,  in  addition  to  the 
employment  of  data  which  are  difficult  and  subject  to  error  in 
irregular  stands  and  extensive  conditions  {e.g.,  normal  incre- 
ment and  average  age  calculations),  it  has  the  strong  drawback 
that  the  adjustment  of  the  excess  or  deficit  in  the  growing  stock 
is  spread  over  the  whole  rotation,  whereas  the  exigencies  of  the 
occasion  usually  warrant  this  adjustment  in  a  fraction  of  that 
time. 

The  method  is,  therefore,  of  little  practical  value  except 
as  a  check  upon  other  methods  of  regulating  the  yield. 

•  From  Table  9,  Bulletin  loi,  Forest  Service,  U.  S.  Dcpt.  of  Agric. 


THE  THEORY  AND  PRACTICE   OF  WORKING  PLANS  63 

9.  BY  VOLUME.— BASED  ON  GROWING  STOCK  AND  INCREMENT. 
HEYER'S  METHOD. 

(a)  Description  of  Method. —  Heyer  bases  his  formula  on 
the  following  premises: 

(i)  If  a  stand  is  normal,  then  an  amount  equal  to  the  mean 
annual  increment  can  be  cut  each  year  so  long  as  the  three 
requisites  of  normality  are  maintained,  i.e.,  (a)  normal  growing 
stock,  (b)  normal  increment,  and  (c)  normal  distribution  of  the 
age  classes  (see  Chapter  I,  Section  i,  "The  Normal  Forest  and 
Its  Attributes"). 

(2)  If  normahty  in  (a)  and  (b)  exists,  but  (c)  is  abnormal, 
it  can  be  made  normal  if  the  normal  increment  is  cut  annually 
or  periodically,  and  the  cut-over  stands  immediately  regen- 
erated. 

(3)  If  the  actual  increment  is  less  than  the  normal  increment 
(the  contrary  can  scarcely  ever  occur),  then,  even  if  the  growing 
stock  is  normal,  only  the  actual,  not  the  normal,  increment  can 
be  cut. 

(4)  If  the  growing  stock  is  abnormal  it  can  be  brought 
toward  normality  by  either  cutting  less  than  the  actual  increment 
if  the  growing  stock  is  too  small,  or  cutting  more  if  it  is  too  large. 

(5)  The  period  of  distribution  (x)  of  excess  or  deficit,  i.e  , 
the  time  during  which  an  abnormal  stand  is  to  approach  normal- 
ity, can  be  determined  only  with  regard  to  local  exigencies,  it 
must  be  developed  out  of  a  general  plan  of  management  which 
is  in  consonance  with  the  wishes  of  the  owner.  If  v<nv  then  x 
must  equal  at  least  a  period  of  years  sufficient  so  that  the  sum 
of  the  actual  increments  during  that  period  equal  the  difference 
between  v  and  nv;  where  this  is  exactly  the  case  then  y  (the 
annual  cut)  equals  o. 

On  these  premises  Heyer  develops  the  formula: 
V  +  ix  —  nv 

y  =  — ; 

i  is  the  actual  mean  annual  increment,  and  hence  really 
varies  from  year  to  year.  Hence  as  i  improves,  the  approach 
toward  normality  is  accelerated  to  less  than  x  years,  as  it  grows 


64  THE   THEORY   AND   PR.\CTICE   OF   WORKING   PL.\NS 

smaller  the  approach  toward  normality  is  retarded  to  more 
than  X  years.  This  variation  of  i  Heyer  meets  by  calculating 
i  not  solely  according  to  its  present  condition,  but  by  conceiving 
of  the  expression  t  x  as  the  increment  during  the  period  of  x 
years,  with  regard  to  all  the  probable  changes  in  increment 
during  the  x  years.  This  is  facilitated  by  the  dra^^'ing  up  of  a 
plan  of  cutting  Cdistribution  of  yield)  as  outlirr'i  i"  ^••'  tion  2 
of  the  present  chapter. 

nv  is  found  by  the  formula  -  in  which  Heyer  takes  i  as  the 

normal  mean  annual  increment,  but  at  the  same  time  raises  the 

question  whether  taking  i  as  the  actual  mean  annual  would 

not  be  equally  correct.*     (It  has  now  come  to  be  universally 

considered  as  the  correct  method.) 

(b)  Example. — An  uneven-aged  forest  of  Western  yellow  pine 

contains  3.500,000  feet  board  measure  of  timber  12  inches  and 

over  diameter  breast  high,  on  1,000  acres.      The  mean  annual 

increment  equals  .7  per  cent,  equals  24.500  feet  board  measure. 

The  rotation  is  taken  at  200  years.    The  normal  growing  stock 

,    ri     200  X  24500  .      ,       f        V. 

equals  -  =  =  2.450.000  teet.     :•  is.  therefore.  >  nv 

by  1,050,000  feet.    This  excess  is,  in  \-iew  of  local  exigencies  and 

r  200 

the  wishes  of  the  owner,  to  be  distributed  over  —  years  =  —  =  50 

4  4 

years  =  x.     By  the  formula : 

_    v-{-ix  -  nv    _  3.500,000  +  (24,500,50)  -  2,450,000 

^  ~  X  ~  50 

3,500,000+1,225,000—2450,000  r      *u         J 

=  ^— — ■ — — ^-^^ =  45,500 feet  board  measure 

equals  annual  cut,  which  is  exactly  the  same  result  secured  by 

the  Austrian  formula   fXo.   5)  modified  as  suggested  under  6, 

,  ,    .               .       V  —  nv                   ^, 500 ,000— 2450,000 
(c),i.e.,y  =  i  +  -^-  =  24,500+^^^ z^ =45.500 

•Judcich,  "  Forstcinrichtung "  in  Lorcy's  "Handbuch  dcr  Forstwisst-n- 
achaft,"  2d  edition,  Vol.  III.,  p.  425,  foot-note. 


THE  THEORY  AND  PR.\CTICE  OF  WORKING  PLANS*  65 

feet  board  measure.  The  only  difference  is  if  i  x  is  modified 
to  correspond  with  expected  changes  during  the  next  x  years — 
as  outlined  above. 

(c)  Value  and  Application.^Carl  Heyer's  formula  dates 
from  1 84 1,  and  is  perhaps  the  only  one  of  the  formula  methods 
in  active  use  to-day,  having  been  adopted  by  the  grand  duchy 
of  Baden  for  the  determination  of  the  volume  yield;  this  is 
supplemented  by  a  careful  cutting  plan  (Distribution  of  Yield)  for 
the  next  period  of  years  (see  Part  Two,  Chapter  I).  Gustav 
Heyer,  in  the  revised  edition  of  Carl  Heyer's  work,*  adds  a 
complete  period  distribution  of  the  yield  similar  to  that  described 
under  No.  17  below.  However,  this  is  possible  only  under  regular 
conditions  and  in  even-aged  stands,  and  in  no  way  destroys  the 
effectiveness  of  Heyer's  formula  in  irregular  uneven-aged  stands, 
although  it  correctly  emphasizes  the  importance  of  adding 
to  the  mere  volume  determination  of  the  yield  a  "when" 
and  "where"  by  means  of  a  careful  cutting  plan  (distribu- 
tion of  yield)  as  described  below  in  Section  2  of  the  present 
chapter. 

With  this  in  mind,  Heyer's  formula  is  directly  apphcable  to 
the  majority  of  American  forests,  especially  to  those  where, 
as  in  virgin  forests,  the  actual  growing  stock  is  far  in  excess 
of  the  normal  growing  stock  and  a  reduction  to  normal  is  of 
prime  importance. 

Summary  and  Comparison  of  the  "Formula 
Methods" 

The  "formula  methods,"  or,  more  properly,  the  "growing 
stock  methods"  ("vorratsmethoden"),  for  there  are  other 
methods  employing  formulas  to  determine  the  yield,  all  aim 
to  have  the  actual  growing  stock  approach  the  normal.  This  is 
secured  by  a  purely  mathematical  ratio  of  increment  and  growing 
stock,  whereas,  oftentimes,  the  character  of  the  stands  and  other 

*  Carl   Heyer,   "Die  Waldertrags-Regelung,"    1841.     Second  and  third 
editions  edited  by  Gustav  Heyer,  1862  and  1883. 
5 


&) 


*TnK    THEORY    AND    I'R ACTICE    OF    WORKINC.    PLANS 


conditions  of  management  which  do  not  admit  of  mathematical 
expression  are  of  more  importance. 

In  combination  with  a  careful  cutting  plan  (distribution  of 
jicld)  the  Heyer  formula  serves  as  a  useful  determinator  in 
irregular,  uneven-agetl  forests.  It  is  better  than  the  other 
forniuhe  for  the  reasons  already  detailed  under  (c)  "Value  and 
Application,"  although  the  other  formula'  will  serve  as  a  useful 
check.  The  superiority  of  the  Heyer  formula  is  still  further 
evident  when  the  results  of  the  examples  based  on  identical 
premises  are  compared: 


y  (annual  cut)  in  feet  board  measure 

Current  No.                              Mcthcxl 

If  nr  "jl 

2 

If  wr-r^j* 

Including 

young 

growth,  etc. 

^     ■Xu'^trian  Formula                              .  .    . 

29.750 
55.300 

56,000 

35.000 
43.120 
45.500 

35.000 

42.350 
70,000 

70.700 
60,200 

41,410 
65,086 

65.786 

(>    K.irl's  Formula       

Karl's  Formula  without  1 1 

7     Hundeshagcn  Formula 

55.286 

For  Comparison: 

2.  \'on  Mantel's  Formula | 

3.  Methodc  dc  Masson f 

10.  BY  VOLUME.— BASED  ON  DIAMETER  CLASSES.     M^THODE 
DE  1883  ("FRENCH  METHOD"    t 

(a)  Description  of  Method. ^Instead  of  constriiciiiig  a 
stand  table,  the  total  \olumc  of  each  diameter  class  should  be 
determined.  Some  figures  should  also  be  obtained  showing  the 
number  of  trees  of  the  diameter  desired  at  the  end  of  the  rotation 
(exploitable  diameter)  which  there  would  be  per  acre  in  a  nor- 
mally stocked  stand,  if  no  other  age  classes  were  present.    Since 


*  See  explanation  under  No.  5:  (a)  "Description  of  Method"  and  (b) 
"Example"  of  Au'Jtrian  formula. 

t  Adapted  from  Barrinpton  Moore's  article  "Methods  of  ReRuIalinR  the 
Cut  on  National  Forests,"  in  Vol.  \'II.,  No.  i,  "  I'roreedings  of  the  S<K-iety  of 
American  Foresters." 


THE   THEORY  AND  PRACTICE   OF   WORKING  PLANS  67 

these  figures  must  be  taken  in  the  field,  sometimes  before  the 
exploitable  diameter  has  been  decided  upon,  several  diameters 
should  be  taken. 

When  the  desired  exploitable  diameter  has  been  decided  upon, 
determine  from  the  growth  figures  the  number  of  years  necessary 
to  produce  this  diameter.  This  number  of  years,  lengthened  by 
a  few  years  to  allow  for  a  possible  delay  in  reproduction,  will  be 
the  rotation. 

Divide  the  trees  shown  by  the  estimates  into  three  groups  as 
follows : 

ist  group,  old  trees.  Those  containing  two-thirds  of  the 
exploitable  diameter  and  above;  e.g.,  if  the  exploitable  diameter 
is  30",  this  group  would  contain  trees  between  20"  and  30". 

2d  group,  medium  trees.  Trees  having  a  diameter  falling 
between  one-third  and  two- thirds  of  the  exploitable  diameter; 
e.g.,  trees  between  10"  and  20". 

3d  group,  young  trees.  Everything  with  a  diameter  less  than 
one-third  of  the  exploitable  diameter. 

The  calculation  of  the  yield  is  based  on  groups  i  and  2,  and 
is  made  in  the  following  manner: 

Find  the  volume  of  each  of  the  first  two  groups.  Then  if  the 
volume  of  the  old  trees  is  to  that  of  the  medium  trees  as  5  is  to  3 
the  proportion  of  the  two  groups  may  be  considered  normal.* 
If  the  proportion  is  normal  it  will  be  possible  to  cut  the  group 
of  old  trees,  plus  their  increment,  during  the  first  third  of  the 
rotation,  the  increment,  of  course,  being  figured  for  only  half 
of  the  third  of  the  rotation. 

But,  first  of  all,  it  is  necessary  to  ascertain  whether  or  not 
the  volume  as  a  whole  is  too  great  or  too  small.  This  is  done  by 
finding  the  total  volume  which  there  would  be  if  half  of  the 


*  This  ratio  is  based  on  the  relative  age  of  the  old  group  and  the  medium 
group;  it  will  vary  with  the  length  of  the  rotation,  the  conditions  of  growth, 
and  the  species.  In  the  present  instance,  if  the  rotation  age  is  150,  each  group 
covers  50  years,  i.e.,  the  old  group  iocy-150,  average  125;  the  medium  group 
50-100,  average  75.  Then  the  old  group  is  to  the  medium  group  as  125  : 
75  =  5  :3- 


08  THE   THEORY   ANT)   PR.-\CTICE   OF   WORKING   PLANS 

entire  area  were  covered  with  trees  of  just  exploitable  size*  (not 
ol  very  large  mature  trees).  In  obtaining  this  volume  the  num- 
ber of  exploitable  trees  per  acre,  called  for  above,  is  used.  The 
result  should  be  approximately  equal  to  the  sum  of  the  old  and 
medium  trees.  If  the  result  is  less  the  forest  contains  a  surplus; 
if  more,  it  contains  a  deficit.  There  are  five  distinct  possibilities: 
(i)  The  volume  of  the  old  and  volume  of  the  medium  trees 
may  be  in  the  proportion  of  5  :  3.  and  sum  of  their  volumes 
normal.  In  this  case  nothing  further  is  necessary  before  the 
actual  calculation  of  the  cut. 

(2)  The  volume  of  old  and  medium  trees  may  be  in  the  pro- 
portion of  5  :  3,  but  their  sum  less  than  normal.  In  this  case 
it  will  be  necessary  to  increase  the  growing  stock.  This  can  be 
done  by  cutting,  during  the  first  third  of  the  rotation,  only  the 
old  trees,  without  their  increment,  or,  if  the  area  is  very  badly 
understocked,  by  cutting  less  than  the  old  trees. 

(3)  The  volume  of  old  and  medium  trees  may  not  be  in  the 
proportion  of  5  :  3,  and  their  sum  nevertheless  normal.  This  is 
adjusted  by  transfers  from  the  group  which  is  too  large  to  that 
which  is  too  small. 

(4)  The  volume  of  old  and  medium  trees  may  not  be  in  the 
proportion  of  5  :  3,  and  their  sum  less  than  normal.  This  will 
probably  mean  that  the  volume  of  old  trees  is  deficient,  and 
must  be  increased  by  cutting  less  than  the  otherwise  allowable 
volume  of  old  trees. 

(5)  The  volume  of  old  and  medium  trees  may  not  be  in  the 
proportion  of  5  13,  and  their  sum  more  than  normal. 

This  could  occur  only  with  an  e.xcess  in  the  old  group.  To 
correct  this,  find  the  volume  of  old  trees  necessary  to  make  the 
ratio  5  :  3  with  the  volume  of  the  medium  trees,  and  which, 
added  to  the  volume  of  medium  trees,  will  give  a  normal  growing 
stock.  The  difTercnce  between  this  xolunic  and  tlu'  actual 
volume  of  old  trees  is  surplus.     This  surplus  must  generally 

•  In  dealing  with  opxjn  stands,  such  as  Western  yellow  pine  in  the  South- 
west, the  area  must  be  considered  as  fully  stocked  with  exploitable  trees,  but 
due  allowance  must  be  made  for  natural  o|)«-nings  and  bare  places. 


THE  THEORY  AND  PR.4CTICE  OF  WORKING  PLANS  69 

be  removed  during  the  first  third  of  the  rotation,  for  the  entire 
area  will  be  cut  over  once  during  that  time.  Even  though  it 
were  desirable  to  distribute  this  surplus  over  a  longer  period, 
such  a  course  would  generally  be  impossible,  because  in  virgin 
forests,  most  of  them  of  difficult  accessibility,  the  first  cut  must 
be  heavy  per  acre  to  justify  logging.  Later  cuttings  may,  with- 
out hardship  to  purchasers,  be  made  lighter. 

When  several  species  occur  in  mixture  all  are  regulated 
together  without  affecting  the  method.  If  one  species  has  a 
more  rapid  growth  and  is  shorter  lived,  requiring  a  shorter 
rotation,  its  exploitable  diameter  should  be  made  lower  than 
that  of  the  other  species. 

The  whole  calculation  is  checked  by  figuring  what  per  cent 
of  the  total  volume  is  represented  by  the  allowable  cut.  This 
per  cent,  after  subtracting  the  surplus,  should  be  approximately 
the  growth  per  cent  of  the  group  of  old  trees. 

The  area  check  on  this  method  is  applied  as  follows: 

The  whole  working  circle  (working  figure)  is  to  be  gone  over 
in  one-third  of  the  rotation.  Since  the  rotation  may  be  long, 
this  third  is  further  divided  into  periods  during  which  the  plan 
is  to  run  without  revision.  If  these  periods  are  too  short  an 
unnecessary  expense  will  be  incurred  by  frequent  reconnaissance 
work,  whereas  if  they  are  too  long  there  is  danger  that  the  effects 
of  original  errors  may  accumulate.  A  period  of  about  20  years 
seems  reasonable.  Thus  if  the  rotation  is  180  years,  the  whole 
working  circle  will  be  cut  over  in  60  years.  If  the  period  during 
which  the  plan  is  to  run  be  20  years,  the  area  is  divided  on  the 
basis  of  topography  into  three  parts,  each  containing  about  an 
equal  volume,  and  each  to  be  cut  over  in  20  years.  In  some 
cases,  where  the  working  circle  does  not  lend  itself  to  a  division 
into  parts  ct)ntaining  equal  volumes,  it  may  be  divided  into 
unequal  parts,  each  part  to  be  cut  over  in  a  period  bearing  the 
same  relation  to  the  one-third  of  the  rotation  as  the  part  bears 
the  whole  working  circle.  The  part  containing  the  largest 
proportion  of  overmature  and  deteriorating  timber  should  be 
cut  during  the  first  period.    This  part  may  be  further  subdivided 


ro 


Tin:    THK(»RV    AM)    PRACTICE    OF    WORKING    PLAN> 


for  convenience  into  watersheds  forming  natural  logging  units 
or  groups  of  units  (blocks). 

(h)  Example. — Total  area  of  working  circle  =  200.000  acres. 

Minimum  merchantable  D.  B.  II.  =  10". 

Size  of  material  desired:  Sugar  pine  and  yellow  pine  =  30". 
Incense  cedar  =24". 

The  group  of  old  trees  will  include  tho.se  20"  and  over  I).  H.  II. 
The  medium  trees  will  include  those  between  10"  and  20" 
D.  B.  H. 

The  average  length  of  time  retiuired  to  produce  a  tree  30" 
D.  B.  H.,  considering  the  important  species,  is  160  years.  The 
period  of  reproduction  is  ap{)ro.\imately  20  years.  Hence  the 
rotation  will  be  160  +20,  or  180  years.  Incense  cedar  is  shorter 
lived  and  more  rapid  growing,  hence  will  be  considered  exploit- 
able at  24"  * 

Table  of  Estimates 


Medium  Trees 

Old  Trees 

Volume  M.  Fket 

VoLi-ME  M.  Feet 

SuRar 
p.nc 

Yel- 
low 
pine 

Incense 
cedar 

Total 

D.  B.  H. 
inches 

Sugar!    i„^,'  !       Incense 
pine  {  pi„e  |        cedar 

Toul 

Volume  of 

Volume  of 

10 

1 
Volume  of  N'olume  of 

sugar  pine 
and  yellow 

incense   ce- 
dar for  each 

II 

12 

sugar  pine  incense  ce- 
and  yellowjdar  for  each 

pine   for 

diameter 

13 

pine   fordia meter 

each  diam- 

class up  to 

etc. 

each  diam-'class       16" 

eter  class 
up  to  19", 
inclusive. 

15",    inclu- 

eter    class  and  over. 

20"     and 

over. 

200,000 

1 ,800,000 

•  This  exploilablc  (iiamcter  for  incense  cedar  will  cause  a  sli^jht  inac- 
curacy in  that  the  medium  trees  should  Ix-  taken  to  8"  insteati  of  10"  to 
corres|X)nd  with  the  24".  On  the  other  hand,  the  volume  between  8"  and  10" 
will  be  small,  and  if  desired  can  be  allowed  for  by  sample  tallies  over  a  small 
percentage  of  the  .strips.  The  cutting  of  a  short-lived  s|x?cies  to  a  lower 
diameter  limit  is  desirable  in  this  case  because  the  area  is  gone  over  only  once 
in  60  years. 


THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING  PLANS  71 

From  the  table  we  find  the  actual  proportion  of  old  and  me- 
dium trees  to  be: 

Old  trees  =  1,800,000  M.  feet 
Medium  trees  =    200,000  M.  feet 


Total,  2,000,000  M.  feet 
The  normal  proportion  should  be: 

Old  trees,  2,000,000  X  |  =  1,250,000 
Medium  trees,  2,ooo,oooXf  =    750,000 

But  the  normal  growing  stock  over  the  whole  area,  considering 

half  of  the  area  stocked  with  30"  trees,  should  be  1,120,000  M. 

This  should  be  divided  between  the  two  groups  as  follows: 

Old  trees,  1,120,000X1=    700,000  M. 
Medium  trees,  i,i20,oooX|=    420,000  M. 

1,120,000  M. 

Hence,  although  there  is  a  surplus  of  1,800,000  —  700,000  = 

1,100,000  M.  feet  of  old  trees,  there  is  a  deficit  of  420,000  — 

200,000  =  220,000  M.  in  the  medium  trees.    If  all  the  old  trees 

were  cut  during  the  first  third  of  the  rotation  the  growing  stock 

would  be  depleted.     Therefore  220,000  M.  feet  will  be  taken 

from  the  lower  diameters  of  the  large  trees,  chiefly  from  the 

more  valuable  species,  and  added  to  the  medium  trees.     The 

resulting  surplus  will  be  1,100,000  —  220,000  =  880,000  M.    This 

surplus  is  to  be  removed  during  the  first  third  of  the  rotation. 

The  cut  for  the  first  third  of  the  rotation  will  therefore  be  the 

880,000  M.  surplus  and  the  700,000  M.  normal  volume  of  old 

trees,  plus  the  increment  on  their  sum.    This  increment  will  be 

12,000  M.  per  annum,  or  12,000X30  =  360,000  for  the  60-year 

period.*     Therefore  the  annual  cut  for  the  first  third  of  the 

rotation  will  be: 

800,000  +  700,000  +  360,000  ,  ,    , 

Y  = — =  32,333  M.  feet. 

This  amounts  to  1.61  per  cent  of  the  total  volume.      Not 
counting  the  surplus  or  increment  on  the  surplus,  there  will  be 

*  The  increment  is  taken  for  only  half  of  the  period  because  cutting  is 
going  on. 


72  THE    THEORY    AND    PRACTICE    (»F   WORKING    I'l.ANS 

a  cut  of  only  853,000  M.  feet  for  the  60-ycar  period,  or  an  annual 
cut  of  only  14.216  M.  feet.  This  is  but  .71  per  cent  of  the  total 
volume,  or  approximately  the  increment  on  the  group  of  old 
trees. 

In  carrying  out  this  method,  site  qualities  producing  very 
marked  dilTerences  in  growth  must  be  distinguished  in  the  field 
work  and  kept  separate  in  the  computations.  For  instance,  in 
some  of  the  very  dry  limestone  soils  of  the  Western  yellow-pine 
belt  of  the  Southwest  the  trees  are  small  and  stunted,  and  even 
when  mature  hardly  reach  the  diameter  of  poleson  ordinary  sites. 
Such  areas  if  small  and  unimportant  may  be  thrown  out  and 
ignored;  but  if  of  some  extent  they  .should  generally  receive  a 
separate  calculation  of  yield  and  j)r()per  consideration  in  the  final 
allotment  of  the  cut. 

(c)  Value  and  Application. — A  disadvantage  of  the  French 
system  is  that  it  rccjuires  the  tallying  of  trees  down  to  one- 
third  of  exploitable  diameter.  This  means  that  if  the  ex- 
ploitable diameter  is  24"  everything  above  8"  must  be  tallied. 
It  is,  therefore,  best  adapted  to  a  high  diameter  limit  and  long 
rotations,  which  is,  however,  generally  the  case  in  many  of  our 
selection  forests.  The  advantages  of  the  method  are  elasticity 
and  a  degree  of  accuracy  not  attainable  with  formula. 

II.  BY     VOLUME.     BASED     ON     DIAMETER     CLASSES.     INDIAN 
METHOD.* 

(a)  Description  of  Method.  This  method  is  based  on  the 
princii)Ie  that  a  certain  number  of  trees  reach  a  size  suitable 
for  cutting  every  year  or  i)eriod  of  years.  The  aim  of  the  method 
is  to  cut  just  this  number  of  trees. 

The  data  required  arc: 

I.  A  careful  enumeration  of  the  growing  stock.  For  this 
purpose  five  or  six  broad  classes  are  made  fr  )m  seedlings  uj)  to 
mature  trees. 


•  Adapted  from  Barringfton  Moore's  article,  "  Methods  of  Regulating  the 
Cut  on  National  Forests,"  in  XOi.  \'ll.,  N(j.  I,  "  Proceedings  of  the  Society  of 
American  F"oresters." 


THE    THEORY  AND   PILA.CTICE    OF   WORKING   PLANS  73 

2.  Growth  figures,  particularly  showing  the  number  of  years 
required  to  pass  through  each  class. 

3.  Figures  showing  the  percentage  of  mortaUty  suffered  by 
each  class  as  it  passes  into  the  next  class  above  and  into  the 
final  or  mature  class. 

The  rotation  is  generally  the  sum  of  the  number  of  years 
required  to  pass  through  each  age  class  till  the  exploitable  size 
is  reached,  with  generally  a  few  years  added  on  to  make  it  con- 
servative. The  felling  period  is  a  convenient  subdivision  of 
the  rotation  and  should  be  at  least  the  length  of  time  required 
to  produce  enough  material  to  justify  the  next  cut. 

The  annual  cut  is  calculated  in  the  following  manner:  The 
number  of  trees  in  each  class  is  multiplied  by  the  percentage 
which  will  survive  till  maturity.  The  results  are  added  and  then 
di\dded  by  the  rotation  plus  one-half  of  the  felhng  period.* 

In  order  to  find  the  growing  stock  of  Class  I  trees  the  average 
annual  yield  as  found  above  is  multipHed  by  half  of  the  felling 
period.  In  order  to  allow  for  mortality  this  number  is  raised 
by  multiplying  by 

/Mortahty  per  cent\ . 

The  growing  stock  thus  found  is  compared  with  the  actual 
growing  stock  to  find  whether  there  is  a  surplus  or  deficit.  The 
annual  cut  is  allotted  accordingly,  distributing  this  surplus  or 
deficit  over  a  certain  period  according  to  the  proportion  of 
lower  classes  and  reproduction. 

The  area  check  is  applied  by  prescribing  the  order  of  the 
feUings  through  the  different  subdivisions  (compartments)  of 
the  working  circle.  A  table  is  drawn  up  shomng  for  each  year 
the  subdivision  on  which  the  cut  is  to  be  located  and  number 
of  trees  to  be  removed. 

*  Half  of  the  felling  period  is  added  to  the  rotation  to  allow  for  the  num- 
ber of  Class  I  trees  (the  largest  class)  which  should  always  be  on  the  ground, 
because  there  should  always  be  a  number  of  Class  I  trees  equal  to  the 
Felling  period 

~  X  average  annual  yield. 


74  THE    THKORY   AND    PKAC  1  It  E    OF   W(JKKI.VG   PLANS 

(b)  Example. — 

Total  Growing  Stock 
Class 


SpecJM 

28"  and 

over 
D.B.H. 

II 
24"  10  28" 

III 
18"  to  24" 

IV 
1 2"  to  18" 

6"  ton" 

VI 

Below 

6"  D.B.H. 

Yellow  pine 

13.178 

11.366 

19.770 

42.577 

117.590 

215.667 

Rotation  =  150  years 
IillinK  jK'ricKl  =    15  years 

From  a  table  showing  per  cent  of  each  class,  reaching  Class  I, 
and  the  per  cent  of  Class  I  surviving  15  years,  the  following 
calculation  is  made:   Average  annual  yield  = 

(13178  X  .95)  +  (11366  X  .83)  +  (19770  X.66)-|-(42577X 

150 +V 

.50)  +  (117590  X  .30)  +  (215667  X  .10) 

150  +  V 

^  12519  +  9472  +  13180  +  21288  +  35277  +  21567 

157-5 

=  719  trees  per  annum. 
1575 

The  growing  stock  of  Class  I  trees,  which  there  should  always 
be,  is  therefore  719  X  ';  X  1.025  =  5532- 

Since  there  are  13,178  Class  I  trees,  a  surplus  of  13.178  —  5.532 
=  7,646  trees  exists. 

The  cut  for  the  period  over  which  it  is  desired  to  distribute 
the  surplus  will  be:  The  present  Class  I  trees,  plus  the  total 
number  of  trees  reaching  Class  I  in  the  period,  minus  the  growing 
stock,  all  divided  by  the  period. 

A  modification  may  be  made  by  calculating  the  annual  yield 
on  the  basis  of  only  the  upper  classes  (the  first  three  or  four) 
instead  of  on  all  classes.  The  sum  of  these  classes  is  then  diviiled 
by  the  number  of  years  which  the  lowest  class  used  will  take  to 
become  Class  T  instead  of  by  the  rotation. 

(c)  Value    and     Application. — Practically     the    only    place 


THE  THEORY  AND  PIL\CTICE   OF  WORKING   PLANS  75 

where  the  single  tree  method  is  used  is  in  India.  There  it  is 
used  ahnost  to  the  exclusion  of  all  other  methods.  It  is  par- 
ticularly well  adapted  to  mixed  tropical  forests  in  which  only  one 
or  two  of  the  many  species  found  is  merchantable. 

The  disadvantages  of  the  method  are  its  lack  of  elasticity, 
its  complexity,  and  hability  to  error;  it  also  requires  as  many 
data  as  better  methods.  Hence  it  should  be  used  only  in  excep- 
tional cases. 

12.  BY  VOLUME.— BASED  ON  DIAMETER  CLASSES.   DIAMETER- 
CLASS  METHOD^(HUrNAGL). 

(a)  Description  of  Method. — I,  yield  in  volume  only;  II, 
yield  in  volume  and  in  number  of  trees. 

I.  For  uneven-aged  (selection)  forests  the  yield  can  be  deter- 

mined  if  all  stands  or  trees  more  than  —  vears  old  are  known  and 

2    • 

their  increment.  This  presupposes  the  fixation  of  the  rotation 
age  (Chapter  I,  Section  3,  "Rotation").  By  means  of  ring- 
counts  on  stumps  of  average  diameter  it  is  then  determined 

at  what  diameter  breast  high  the  trees  have  an  age  equal  to-. 

All  trees  of  this  diameter  and  over  are  next  estimated — prefer- 
ably in  three-inch  diameter  classes— and  their  volume  and 
current  annual  increment  determined  (see  Chapter  I,  Sections 
I  and  2). 

y  then  equals  volume  of  trees  or  of  diameter  classes  -  years 

f 

and  over,  plus  increment  thereof  in  -  years;  this  sum  divided  by 

-.    (For  underlying  theory  see  Formula  Methods  above.) 

II.  Going  a  step  further,  diameter  can  be  substituted  for  age. 
After  determining  at  what  diameter,  and  upwards,  the  trees 
are  most  merchantable,  it  follows  that  all  trees  of  this  diameter 
and  larger  are  merchantable  and  should,  other  things  being  equal, 
be  cut  in  the  near  future,  i.e.,  during  a  period  of  years  required 


/b  THE    THEORY    AND    PRACTICE    OF    WORKING    PLANS 

for  the  next  lowest  diameter  class  or  classes  to  produce  an  equal 
number  of  merchantable  stems.  But  since  the  lower  diameter 
classes  contain  more  trees  than  the  higher  classes,  therefore 
more  than  replacing  those  cut  in  the  higher  class,  proportionately 
more  of  the  oldest  stems  can  be  cut. 

To  express  this  numcricail}-,  the  period  of  years  separating 
the  diameter  classes  must  be  known,  i.e.,  the  average  age  of  the 
average  tree  in  each  diameter  class.  Let  this  value  equal  ai, 
Qi,  03,  etc.  The  volume  of  the  average  tree  in  each  diameter 
class  must  also  be  known  (volume  tables,  measurement  of  repre- 
sentative trees,  etc.).  Let  this  value  equal  t'l,  t'2,  w,  etc.  Let, 
iinally,  the  number  of  trees  in  each  diameter  class  equal  n^,  }u,  n^, 
etc.,  and  the  formula  follows: 

i    =  —  I'i  + V3  H V2  +  —  Vi 

Qi  —  03  Oi  —  03  03  —  o-x  a>  —  Oi 

Hufnagl  further  advocates  the  comparison  of  y  obtained 
by  this  method  with  y  obtained  by  current  annual  increment 
(method  No.  4  above)  and,  if  necessary,  the  use  of  only  the 
first  one  or  first  two  of  this  series  of  expressions  so  as  to  make 
the  results  correspond,  and  also  periodic  revisions  of  the  data 
on  which  the  method  is  based. 

Since  the  method  is  particularly  intended  for  selection  forests 
it  is  Hufnagl's  theory  that  the  cutting  cycle  shall  equal  approx- 
imately Ot—Os  years,  i.e.,  the  time  required  for  the  highest  non- 
merchantable  diameter  class  to  become  merchantable. 

(b)  Example. — A  certain  uneven-aged  forest  of  Western 
yellow  pine  is  to  be  managed  on  a  200-year  rotation.     Stump 

analyses  show  that  at  the  age  of  -  =  100  years  the  average  diam- 
eter breast  high  equals  18  inches.*  The  estimate  of  all  trees 
over  18  inches  diameter  breast  high  equals  1,085,200  feet  board 
measure,  divided  as  shown  below.  The  current  annual  incre- 
ment is  assumed  at  .7  per  cent. 


Adapted  from  Bulletin  loi,  Forest  Service,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agric. 


THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE   OF  WORKING   PLANS  77 

1,085.200  +  /7,596X2oo\ 


y  then  =     [  j      =    14,650    feet   board 

2 
measure  =  annual  cut. 

Substituting  diameter  for  age  (variation  II)  and  assuming 
the  diameter  classes  to  be  as  follows*: 

D.  B.  H.  Average  Volume  Intervening  Years 

inches  feet  b.  ni.  No.  of  Trees  Total  Volume         (from  diameter 

growth  tables) 

10-12  60  240  14,400  

13-15  no  440  48,400  

16-18  190  770  146,300        

19-21  310  720  223,200        

22-24  480  (f;)  580  (Wi)  278,400  45(^2-01) 

25-27  710  (^'2)  410  (M2)  291,100  47(03-02) 

28-30  1,020   (l/j)  190  (Wg)  -93,800  48(04—03) 

31-33  1,410  (t'4)  70(^4)  8,700         

Now,  having  determined  that  the  trees  are  most  merchant- 
able at  a  diameter  of  22  inches  and  upward,  it  follows  that  the 
last  four  diameter  classes  are  ripe  for  cutting.  Applying  the 
formula : 

■rr  W4  70  r     -    1 

F  = 1^4  =  -r        X    1410  =    2,059  i^Gt  b,  m, 

^4   —   ^3  40 

tlz   —   «4  190   —    70  r  1 

■\ Vz  =  ■ ■   X  1020  =     2,550  feet  b.  m. 

^4  —  as  40 

fh  —  fis  410  —  190  ^   , 

-\ v->  =  X  710    =     5,204  leet  b.  m. 

as-  a-i     '  30 

,     Wi   —   W2  580  —   410  ^  or., 

+  vi  = X  480    =    4,080  feet  b.  m. 

02  —  ^1  20 

F=  13,893  feet  b.  m.== 

annual  cut. 

Comparing  this  with  the  results  obtained  from  similar  data 

by  method  No.  4  equals  15,428  feet  board  measure,  the  annual 

cut  does  not  appear  excessive.     If,  however,  the  result  were 

appreciably  higher  than  that  by  method  No.  4,  the  formula 

*  Adapted  from  Bulletin  loi,  Forest  Service,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agric. 


78  THE   THEORY   AND    PRACTICE   OF   WORKING   PLANS 

should  be  cut  down  to  the  first  one  or  two  expressions  of  the 

Oi   -  (13      '* 

+ V3  =  2,059  +  2oso  =  4.609  feet  b.  m. 

Gi  —  a% 

The  cutting  cycle  equals  tZi  — (23  =  48  years,  or.  roughly.  50 
years. 

(c)  Value  and  Application. —This  method,  first  published 
by  Hufnagl  in  1893,*  ^^  excellently  adapted,  especially  in  its 
second  variation,  to  the  irregular  and  over-mature  selection 
forest  which  is  so  commonly  encountered  in  all  parts  of  America. 
It  is  especially  well  suited  to  virgin  stands,  tending  to  cut  the 
excess  growing  stock  (of  overmature  timber)  within  the  first 
cutting  cycle,  and  yet  providing  ample  material  for  a  second  cut 
at  the  end  thereof  (in  50  years  from  first  cut). 

The  data  which  are  required  are  those  of  ever}'  thorough 
reconnaissance  preliminary  to  a  working  plan,  namely,  data  on 
diameter-class  distribution,  on  number  of  trees  in  each  (in  repre- 
sentative stands),  of  volume,  and  of  diameter  growth  or.  in  the 
first  variation,  of  increment  (current  annual).  If  it  is  not  feasible 
to  tally  diameter  classes  for  the  tract,  carefully  chosen,  fully 
stocked  sample  plots  of  varying  site  classes  will  suffice,  but 
when  applied  to  the  total  stand  must  be  reduced  to  correspond 
with  the  varying  density  of  stocking. 

When  accompanied  by  a  plan  of  cutting  (distribution  of  yield) 
for  the  next  decade,  the  method  is  perhaps  the  most  practical 
yet  invented  for  irregular  selection  forests.  Indeed,  it  is  intended 
for  just  such  conditions  in  the  more  remote  parts  of  Austria. 

13.  BY  AREA  AND  VOLUME.- -FOR  ENTIRE   FOREST.     RUSSIAN 

METHOD. 
(a)    Description    of    Method. f — This    method    is    prinicirily 
adapted  to  forests  managed  under  the  shelterwood  or  shelter- 

•  "Oestcrreichische  Viertcljahrschrift  fiir  Forstwesen,"  1893,  pp.  177  and 
following. 

t  From  a  translation  by  Mr.  Raphael  Zon  of  the  Forest  Service. 


THE  THEORY  AND   PR.\CTICE   OF   WORKING  PLANS  79 

wood-selection  system  (see  Chapter  I,  Section  3)  wherein  the 
timber  is  cut  off  gradually  and  regeneration  stretches  over  a 
period  of  years  known  as  the  "regenerative  period."  The 
method  is  described  as  follows: 

"The  area  is  taken  for  the  measure  of  the  annual  cut,  al- 
though it  is  generally  admitted  that  in  such  forests  the  area  is 
less  appropriate  measure  than  in  forests  with  clear  cutting.  In 
selection  forests  there  cannot  be  any  annual  cutting  area,  but 
an  area  which  is  to  be  cut  over  during  the  number  of  years 
which  is  contained  in  the  regenerative  period,  since  during  that 
period  the  entire  forest  area  must  be  cut  off.  Instead  of  an 
annual  cutting  area  in  selection  forests  there  must  be  taken  a 
periodic  area,  the  size  of  which  is  obtained  by  dividing  the  area 
of  the  forest  by  the  quotient  resulting  from  division  of  the 
rotation  by  the  regenerative  period.  In  order  to  obtain  an  equal 
annual  cut  each  year  it  is  necessary  to  determine  the  amount  of 
standing  timber  on  the  periodic  area  which  is  to  be  cut  over 
and  then  aim  to  cut  annually  only  an  equal  part  of  that  amount. 
Of  course  this  tendency  to  cut  every  year  an  equal  amount 
of  the  standing  timber  may  be  disturbed  at  the  time  of  a  good 
seed  year,  when  it  will  be  desirable  to  cut  over  a  larger  area, 
and  cut  less  during  the  years  when  there  is  no  seed.  Since, 
however,  the  regenerative  period  is  always  of  some  length,  it 
will  always  be  possible  to  equahze  to  some  extent  the  amount 
to  be  cut  within  that  period.  On  a  large  area  which  is  being 
cut  over  within  a  given  regenerative  period  it  is  possible  to 
increase  during  poor  seed  years,  the  so-called  preliminary  cut- 
tings, which  allow  more  light  into  the  stand,  while  in  good  seed 
years  such  cuttings  may  be  suspended  and  stress  laid  chiefly 
upon  so-called  regenerative  cuttings,  which  secure  natural 
reproduction.  If  the  area  which  is  being  cut  over  consists  of 
several  different  types  containing  different  species,  the  chances 
are  that  the  seed  years  will  not  occur  in  all  the  species 
at  the  same  time.  This  again  may  help  to  equalize  the  cut- 
tings from  year  to  year.  Finally,  even  if  it  is  impossible 
to  equalize  the  amount  of   timber   to  be   cut  every  year,  this 


80  TIIE   TUFORV   AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING   PLANS 

drawback  will  be  more  than  offset  by   the   advantages  of   this 
method. 

"Properly  speaking,  not  only  the  entire  stand  over  the  area 
which  is  to  be  cut  over  within  the  regenerative  period  should  be 
taken  into  account  in  determining  the  annual  cut,  but  also  the 
increment  that  will  take  place  within  the  regenerative  period. 
This,  however,  is  a  very  complicated  undertaking,  and  it  is  best 
to  determine  the  annual  cut  within  the  regenerative  period 
merely  on  the  basis  of  the  actual  standing  timber,  leaving  the 
future  revisions  of  the  working  plan  to  take  account  of  the 
increment." 

(b)  Example. — A  thousand-acre  forest  of  Western  yellow 
pine,  containing  3,500,000  feet  board  measure,  is  to  be  man- 
aged by  the  shelterwood-selection  system  with  a  regenerative 
period  of  appro.ximately  50  years.  The  rotation  is  set  at  200 
years. 

The  periodic  cutting  area  =  ~ =  250  acres.    The  cutting 

plan  ('distrii)ution  of  yield)  shows  that  the  250  acres  selected 

^,S00,000 

for  cuttmg  in  the  next  50  years  contain  not  '   '  =  875,000 

feet  board  measure,  but,  since  this  part  of  the  stand  is  somewhat 

I. OCX)  ,000 

overmature,  1,000,000  feet  board  measure.     vthen= = 

50 

20,(XK)  feet  board  measure  =  the  annual  cut  for  the  ne.xt  50-year 
cutting  period. 

(c)  Value  and  Application.  —This  method  is  exceedingly 
simple  and  ai)plicabk'  only  under  very  rough  conditions,  as  is 
shown  by  the  fact  that  it  dodges  all  calculations  of  increment. 
It  has  the  advantage  of  simplicity  and  the  disadvantage  of  being 
too  ironclad.  It  is,  however,  a  primitive  recognition  of  the 
important  interrelation  of  volume  and  area  in  the  determination 
of  the  vield. 


THE   THEORY  AND  PRACTICE   OF  WORKING  PLANS  81 

14.  BY  AREA  AND  VOLUME.— BASED  ON  AGE  CLASSES.    DIRECT 
METHOD  (HUFNAGL*). 

(a)  Description  of  Method. — If  the  volume  and  the  area 
of  the  oldest  stands  which,  presumably,  will  be  cut  in  the  next 
ten  or  twenty  years,  is  known,  the  average  volume  per  acre 

v 
equals  -.      This  volume  multiplied  by  the  allowed  annual  cut 

in  area  equals  the  allowed  annual  cut  in  volume. 

(b)  Example. — Referring  to  example  of  method  No.  i  above: 
Variation  I.  Area  not  reduced.  Annual  cutting  area  equals  62.5 
acres.  The  volume  of  the  oldest  stands  to  be  cut  in  the  next 
twenty  years  (oldest  age  class)  equals  1,000,000  feet  board 
measure,  their  area  is  250  acres. 

V 

Then  the  average  volume  per  acre  =  -  =  4,000  feet    board 

measure. 

The  volume  of  the  annual  cut  =  4,000X62.5  =  250,000  feet 
board  measure. 

Variation  II.  Area  Reduced.  Using  the  figures  given  in  the 
example  of  Variation  II,  Method  No.  i  above:  Annual  cutting 
area  reduced  to  terms  of  Site  Quality  I  equals  6.64  acres.  The 
stands  ripe  for  cutting  in  the  next  twenty  years  (oldest  age  class) 
show  an  average  stocking  of  .7  and  an  average  site  quality  III, 
and  hence  (from  yield  tables  or  from  measurements  of  sample 
plots  of  mature  fully  stocked  stands  of  varying  site  qualities) 
an  average  volume  of  68,000 X. 7  =47,600  feet  board  measure 
per  acre.  6.64  acres  of  site  quality  I  are  to  be  cut  per  annum. 
This  is  equivalent  (see  example,  method  No.  i,  Var.  II)  to  10 
acres  of  site  quality  III.  Hence  the  annual  cut  =  47,600X10  = 
476,000  feet  board  measure. 

Variation  III.  Hufnagl.  Using  the  figures  in  the  example 
under  method  No.  i,  and  the  example  under  Variation  I  of  the 
present  method: 

*  Hufnagl,  "Praktische  Forsteinrichtung,"  is  the  source  of  this  and  the 
subsequent  method  (No.  15). 
6 


82  THE   THKOKY   AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING   PLANS 

V 

The  average  volume  per  acre=  -  =4,000  feet  board  measure. 

The  volume  of  the  annual  cut  =  4.000X29=  iiO.ooo  feet 
board  measure. 

(c)  Value  and  Application. — As  noted  under  similar  heading 
in  method  Xo.  i .  the  method  has  all  the  disadvantages  of  a  lixed 
value  for  the  rotation,  instead  of  a  naturally  adjustable  one, 
and  allows  none  of  the  free  play  so  necessary  for  the  best  siKi- 
culture.  Variations  I  and  III  are  exceedingly  simple,  and  hence 
quite  well  adapted  to  forests  with  fairly  uniform  conditions,  i.e., 
coppice  and  coppice  with  standards.  \'ariation  II  is  too  com- 
plex for  all  but  the  most  intensive  conditions,  and  requires  all 
the  data,  while  possessing  none  of  the  advantages  of  other  and 
better  methods.  ObviousP^'  the  method  presupposes  an  age- 
class  table,  and  hence  a  forest  composed  of  fairly  even-aged 
stands.  It  is  therefore  essentially  >wt  a  method  for  selection 
forests.  Furthermore,  it  is  applicable  only  to  forests  wherein 
the  oldest  age  class  does  not  average  more  than  r  -\-$  years,  i.e., 
is  not  more  than  5  years  older  than  the  rotation.  This  condition 
is  seldom  attainable  in  American  high  forest,  and  for  high  forests, 
aside  from  its  occasional  use  to  check  other  figures,  the  method 
therefore  lapses  into  merely  historical  interest  and  as  the  basis 
of  the  stand  method  (No.  16)  and  the  various  period  methods 
(No.  17)  discussed  below. 

15.  BY  AREA  AND  VOLUME.-BASED  ON  AGE  CLASSES.     HUF- 
NAGL'S  METHOD. 

(a)  Description  of  Method. — Hufnagl's  premise  is  that  the 
sustained  yield  can  be  determined  directly  if  the  volume  and  the 

r 

increment  of  the  stands  now  more  than  —   vcars  old  is  known. 

2 

This  methcxl  presupjioses  a  stand  table  containing  the  volume 

and  area  of  all  stands  of  over     -  vears.     To  this  volume  is  to  be 
2  ' 

added,  also,  the  increment  of  these  stands  in  the  next  —  year.->; 


THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING  PLANS  83 

for  since  the  area  of  these  stands  diminishes  each  year,  and  in 

r 

the  year  —  =  0,  the  increment  can  only  apply,  on  an  average,  to 

half  the  area. 

As  to  the  increment,  Hufnagl  distinguishes  two  variations 
of  his  method  according  as  I  the  current,  or  II  the  mean  annual 

increment  is  used. 

I.  The  current  annual  increment  of  each  stand  over  -  years 

old  having  been  determined  (by  yield  tables  or  by  field 
measurements,  Chapter  I,  Section  i),  the  sum  of  these  incre- 
ments is  used  in  the  formula  which  follows. 

V 

II.  The  mean  annual  increment  equals— .  It  can  be  deter- 
mined from  yield  tables  or,  empirically,  by  measuring  average 
stocked  stands  of  average  site  quality  whose  age  approximates 

V 

r  years.      —  then  equals  the  mean  annual  increment. 

Hufnagl's  formula  then  follows:  (letting  F  equal  the  volume 

r 

of  stands  -  years  and  over,  A  their  area,  i  the  increment  in  board 

2-'  '  ' 

feet  per  acre  per  annum,  current  or  mean) : 
V  -{-  a  .i  .r 

r  = ^ 

r 

2 

If  i  equals  mean  annual  increment  it  will  usually  be  10-20  per 
cent  less  than  the  current  annual  increment.  This  makes  its 
use  the  more  conservative  of  the  two. 

(b)  Example. — In  a  forest  of  2,160  acres  with  a  rotation  of 
80  years,  the  stands  40  years  and  older  have  a  volume  of  3,2 1 1,000 
feet  board  measure  on  1,120  acres.     The  mean  annual  incre- 

o  211  000 

ment  for  the  rth  (80th)  year  equals  ^^ X  .007  =  2,867  X 


84  THE   THEORY   AND   PRACTICE    OF   WORKING   PLANS 

.007  =  20.069=20  feet  board  measure.     Then  by  the  formula: — 

V  -\-  a.i.r^ 

„  _  4  _3, 211,000  +  (1,120  X  20)  20  _ 

_r  40 

2 

3,211,000  +  448,000  f    .  I        ,  1      . 
=  91,47 S  teet  board  measure  =  annual  cut. 

(c)  Value  and  Application. —Hufnagl's  method  shows  much 
originah"t\-  and  is  applicable  to  even-aged  stands  of  only  mod- 
erate regularity,  the  very  conditions  encountered  in  many 
American  forests.  Its  age-class  differentiation  is  \ery  simjile, 
as  is  also  the  volume  and  increment  determination.  The  latter 
had  best  be  the  mean  annual  increment,  and  can  readily  be 
calculated  from  sample  plots  if  }ield  tables  are  lacking. 

A  disadvantage  of  the  method  is  the  rigid  fixation  of  the 
rotation  age,  which  should  really  be  a  flexible  Cjuantity;  but  if 
this  is  offset  by  frec|uent  revisions  at  regular  intervals  the  method 
will  pass  muster,  especially  in  the  irregular  stands  common  to 
most  parts  of  America.  If  this  method  of  calculating  the  yield 
is  adopted,  it  must  always  be  supplemented  by  a  careful  cutting 
plan  (distribution  of  yield)  (see  Section  2). 

16.  BY  AREA  AND  VOLUME.— BASED  ON  AGE  CLASSES.  THE 
STAND  METHOD  (JUDEICH'S  "BESTANDSWIRT- 
SCHAFT  ";. 

(a)  Description  of  Method. — Judoich*  bases  his  method  on 
the  undoubted  fact  that  no  method  of  determining  the  yield 
for  a  period  of  years  in  advance — some  even  attempting  to  do  so 
for  the  whole  rotation  or  a  substantial  part  thereof — is  accurate 
without  frequent  revisions  which  recognize  the  unexpected 
changes  inevitable  in  every  stand  no  matter  how  careful  1>- 
managed.  He  therefore  makes  no  attempt  to  regulate  the  yield 
for  more  than  a  decade  in  advance,  but  prescribes  not  only  a 
revision,  but  a  new  j)lan  at  the  end  of  the  decade. 


*  Adapted   frum    Lc^rcv,    "Handbuch   dcr   Forstwisscnschaft,"   2d  e<iit., 
VoL  III. 


THE  THEORY  AND  PR.\CTICE   OF  WORKING  PLANS  85 

In  order  to  secure  a  sustained  yield  the  annual  cut  is  cal- 
culated with  the  following  three  regulating  factors : 

(a)  The  normal  yearly  cutting  area  or  volume; 

(b)  The  distribution  of  the  age  classes; 

(c)  The  results  of  previous  cuttings. 

The  more  the  results  of  previous  cuttings,  especially  with  regard 
to  their  effect  on  the  distribution  of  the  age  classes,  are  available, 
the  greater  is  the  justification  in  regulating  the  yield  for  only 
a  decade  in  advance.  Where  there  has  been  no  previous  working 
plan  nor  adequate  record  keeping  (with  especial  respect  to 
volume,  area,  and  distribution  of  age  classes)  the  yield  must  be 
determined  two,  three,  or  at  most  four  decades  in  advance. 

Judeich  does  not  give  any  certain  method  of  ascertaining 
the  yield — either  in  volume  or  in  area — but  adapts  this  to  the 
peculiar  exigencies  of  each  forest.  The  object  of  the  working 
plan  is  the  attainment  of  normality  in  the  distribution  of  the 
age  classes;  this  is  secured  by  a  correct  cutting  series  (see  Sec- 
tion 2)  and  cutting  policy. 

The  cutting  policy  selects  for  the  next  decade  or  two,  or, 
at  most,  three  or  four,  all  the  stands  or  groups  of  stands  which 
require  cutting  for  one  or  more  of  the  following  reasons: 

1 .  Administrative  necessity. 

2.  Disease  and  decadence  (overmaturity). 

3.  Maturity. 

4.  Inferiority,  slow  growth. 

The  sum  of  stands  ready  to  cut  for  reasons  1-4  gives  in  area 
and  volume  the  cut  for  the  next  period,  subject  to  the  following 
regulating  factors: 

(a)  The  normal  yearly  cutting  area  or  volume. 

(b)  The  distribution  of  the  age  classes. 

(c)  The  results  of  previous  cuttings. 

(a)  Can  be  determined  by  any  of  the  methods  already 
described,  by  area  if  the  distribution  of  the  age  classes  is  not 
too  abnormal  {e.g.,  method  No.  i),  by  volume,  preferably,  if  the 
distribution  of  the  age  classes  is  far  from  normal  and  there  is  a 
preponderance  of  overmature  timber  (e.g.,  method  No.  9). 


8C  THE   THEORY  AND   PR.\CTICE   OF   WORKING   PLANS 

Judeich  expressly  states  that  his  method  is  not  restricted  to 
a  financial  rotation,  but  is  equally  well  adapted  to  rotations  on 
other  bases  (see  Chapter  I,  Section  3,  "Rotations"'),  e.g.,  that 
of  greatest  volume  or  of  technical  production. 

(b)  Example, — Assuming  a  general  stand  table  such  as  that 
given  in  Chapter  I,  Section  2,  from  this  it  appears  that  the  follow- 
ing stands*  are  in  need  of  cutting  during  the  next  ten  years: 

Compt.      Subcompt.      Area  Stand 

Reason  No.  Letter  acres  Species  and  M.  ft.  b.m. 

1.  Administrative  necessity      ....  ....  ....  .... 

2.  Disease  and  decadence . .  9  b  61         Spruce  900     .... 

10  ....  50  Fir  100 

3.  Maturity 6  ....  100  "    1,100       "      75 

8  ....  40  "       440       "      60 

Total 251     Spruce  2,440     Fir  235 

=  2,675  ^I-  icet. 

The  distribution  of  the  age  classes  (see  age  class  table.  Chap- 
ter I,  Section  2)  shows  a  considerable  abnormality,  as  follows: 

Overmature       Mature  VounR      Restockable 

(160  +  )  {81-160)  (1-80)         blanks. 

Actual acres  61  266  300            103 

Norma! "  .  .  355  355 

Deficit "  .  .  89  55 

Surplus "  61  ...  ...             103 

The  rotation  is  160  years;    the  total  area  710  acres  exclusive 

of  natural  blanks,  and  the  protective  belt  of  all-aged  forest  (see 

foot-note). 

Despite  the  abnormality,  the  annual  cutting  area  is  here 

talculated  for  the  sake  of  an  example,  e.g.,  by  method  No.  i, 

^    ,  ,         •  ^       710 

variation  I,  the  annual  cutting  area  =  —  =  -7-  =4.43215  acres. 

For  ten  years  =  44.31 25  acres. 

The  cutting  for  the  next  ten  years  would,  therefore,  be  con- 
fined entirely  to  compartment  9b. 

But  if  variation  II  were  to  be  used  (assuming  the  same 

•  The  all-aged  selection  fc^rest  of  the  protective  belt  is  neces.sarily  omitted 
since  it  obviously  requires  a  different  method  of  computing  the  yield. 


THE  THEORY  AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING  PLANS 


87 


values  as  in  the  example  under  method  i,  Variation  II)  the 
reduced  area  would  be,  reduced  to  terms  of  site  I: 


104  acres,  Site  I    =  104  acres  X  i 

00  =  104 

acres. 

96 

"  I/II  =  96 

'  X 

92=  88 

106 

"   II    =106 

'     X 

83=  S8 

103 

'    "III   =103 

'  X 

66=  68 

100 

"  III   =100 

'  X 

66=  66 

lOI 

"  11/111  =  101 

'  X 

75=  76 

100 

"  II    =100 

'  X 

83=  83 

710 

573 

reduced  area 

573 

3-58125, 

s  annual. uLuu^uic^-^^^^^.^^ 

160 

for 

ten  years  equals  35.8125  of  Site  I  or  equivalent.  The  61  acres  in 
9  b  are  Site  II/III.  It  requires  1.35  acres  of  Site  II/III  to  equal 
one  acre  of  Site  I.  Hence  35.8125X1.35=48.35  acres  of  per- 
missible cutting  area  in  9  b  during  the  next  ten  years.  The 
volume  can  then  be  determined  by  multiplying  the  average  stand 
per  acre  for  the  site  determined  from  yield  tables  or  from  local 
measurement  by  the  per  cent  of  stocking  and  then  by  the  reduced 
acreage  (see  example  under  Variation  II,  method  No.  14). 

But  where  stands  are  so  irregular  in  age  classes,  site  quality, 
and  density  of  stocking,  it  is  not  well  to  resort  to  area  as  the 
regulating  factor,  but  rather  some  volume  method,  such  as 
Heyer's,  of  comparison  with  the  normal  growing  stock  (method 
No.  9). 

This  would  give : 
i  (mcrement)  =  5,840 M.  feetof  spruceX(say).oo7=40,88oft.b.m. 
970  M.  feet  of  fir        X  .01=   9,700  ft.  b.m. 


Total,      50,580  feet. 


r    =160 


ri 


^4,046,400  feet  b.  m. 


V  =  6,810,000  feet  b.  m. 

.'.V  >  nvby    2,763,600  feet  b.  m. 


88  Till-:    THKORY  AND   PRACTICE  OF   NVOKKING   I'l  \NS 

Let  X  (the  period  of  distribution)  =   -  =  -     -  =  40  vears. 
^       ^  '       4       40        ^    - 

Then  by  the  formula  : 

V  -\-  i  .X  —  nv  _  6,810,000  +  (50,580  X  40)  —  4,046.400   _ 

■^   ~         '   X  40 

119.670  feet  board  measure. 

The  annual  cut  therefore  equals  119.670  feet  board  measure. 

The  cut  for  the  decade  equals  1.196,700  feet  board  measure. 

There  is  within  compartments  9  b,  10,  and  part  of  6  and  8 

ample  (2,675  ^^-  ^^^0  for  the  cutting  within  the  next  decade. 

Compartments  6  and  8  need  scarcely  be  touched,  which  is  just 

as  well,  since  they  are  barely  mature  now.    If,  however,  in  view 

of  the  proportionately  large  amount  of  mature  and  overmature 

timber  it  is  desired  to  reduce  the  period  of  distributing  the 

surplus  to  ten  years,  the  result  would  be: 

6,810,000  +  (50,^80  X  10)  —  4,046,400 
^^— =  326.940. 

The  annual  cut  therefore  equals  326.940  feet  board  measure. 

The  cut  for  the  decade  equals  3,269.400  feet  board  measure. 

There  are  within  compartments  9,  10,  6,  and  8  only  2,675,000 
feet,  hence  the  management  must  either  be  conservative  and 
content  itself  therewith  or  add  compartment  4,  with  945,000 
feet  to  the  cutting  areas  for  the  decade,  which  would  make 
3,620,000  feet  board  measure,  or  ample  whereon  to  draw  for 
the  3,269.400  feet  l)(>ard  measure  to  be  cut. 

(c)  Value  and  Application. — This  method  is  wiLhout  d()ul)t 
the  most  rational  of  all  the  methods  of  determining  the  yield; 
for  it  attempts  no  iron-clad  rule  or  framework — such  as  the 
"period  methods"  next  to  be  considered — but  depends  entirely- 
on  the  silvicultural  and  economical  requirements  of  the  forest. 
By  means  of  frequent  revisions  the  amount  cut  can  never 
endanger  the  continuity  of  the  forest's  productiveness,  while  it 
allows  full  play  to  the  skill  of  the  olTicer  in  charge  of  the  manage- 
ment of  the  forest.  The  forest  moves  steadily  toward  a  normal 
distribution  of  the  age  clas.ses.  but  this  very  desirable  goal  is 
attained  without  undue  sacritices. 


THE   THEORY  AND   PR.A.CTICE   OF   WORKING  PLANS  89 

It  is  a  method  of  great  freedom  and  adaptability.  Freedom 
in  so  far  as  the  cutting  of  certain  stands  is  not  prescribed  far  in 
advance  for  a  certain  time,  but  entirely  according  to  the  exi- 
gencies of  the  situation.  It  is  adaptable  to  all  methods  of  high 
forest  which  result  in  even-aged  or  fairly  even-aged  stands,  i.e., 
to  all  but  the  selection  system. 

The  method  in  its  simple  application  is  well  suited  to  Amer- 
ican conditions  where  it  is  often  of  prime  importance  to  dispose 
of  the  overmature  and  decadent  timber  within  the  reasonable 
check  of  a  sustained  volume  yield  aided  by  the  corrections  of 
decennial  redetermination  of  the  yield  and  striving  toward  the 
distant  goal  of  a  normal  age-class  distribution. 

17.  BY    AREA  AND  VOLUME.— BASED    ON    PERIODS    ("  FACH- 
WERKSMETHODEN  "  *). 

(a)  Description  of  Method. — The  rotation  is  divided  into  a 
number  of  equally  long  periods  of  time.  Usually  these  periods 
comprise  twenty  years.  Every  stand  or  subcompartment  is 
assigned  to  a  period  corresponding  with  its  age,  so  that  each 
part  of  the  entire  area  of  the  working  figure,  with  the  exception 
of  certain  areas  reserved  for  selection  forest,  protective  belt,  or 
other  special  purpose,  is  used  once  during  the  rotation. 

The  sums  of  the  individual  periods  must  be  approximately 
equal,  or  somewhat  higher  for  the  later  periods.  If  this  is  not 
the  case,  adjustment  is  necessary,  by  transferring  certain  stands 
or  subcompartments  to  an  adjacent  period.  According  as  this 
adjustment  emphasizes  equahty  of  area,  or  equality  of  volume, 
or  equality  in  both,  different  kinds  of  period  methods  are  recog- 
nized as:  I.  Area-period  method  (" Flachenfachwerk ") ;  11. 
Volume-period  method  ("  Massenfachwerk ") ;  III.  Area-and- 
volume-period  method  (" Kombiniertes  Fachwerk"). 

I.  In  the  area-period  method  ("  Flachenfachwerk  ")  the  areas 
are  assigned  to  various  periods  either  as  actual  areas  or  as 

*  The  name  "Fachwerksmethoden"  comes  from  the  German  "Facher" 
or  pigeon-holes  into  which  the  various  parts  of  the  forest  are  placed  by  these 
methods.  A  "Facherwerk"  or  "Fachwerk"  is,  therefore,  a  framework  con- 
sisting of  many  pigeon-holes,  and  these  methods  are  "Framework"  methods. 


90  THK   THKORY  AND  PRACTICE   OF  WORKING  PLANS 

reduced  areas  (see  method  No.  i  above)  of  equal  productivity. 
The  method  aims  to  cut  each  year,  or  each  period,  an  equally 
productive  area  containing  an  appro.vimatcly  equal  volume. 
The  age-class  table  is  the  basis  of  the  assignment  to  periods, 
however  these  must  then  be  shifted  to  secure  etjuality  of  utiliza- 
tion in  each  period.  Knowing  the  area  to  be  cut  in  the  first 
(immediate)  period  and  (from  yield  tables  or  empirical  measure- 
ments) the  volume  yield  thereof,  the  annual  cut  is  found  by 
dividing  this  volume  by  the  number  of  \ears  in  the  j)eriod. 
This  volume  calculation  is  usually  confined  to  the  first  period. 
Final  t  uttings  are  restricted  to  this  period. 

1 20 

In  a  rotation  of  1 20  \ears  there  are,  c.c., =6  periods.    Were 

'     ''  '  20         ' 

the  age-class  distribution  normal,  the  periods  and  the  age  limits 

of  the  stands  comprised  therein  would  be  as  follows: 

I  Period Age  of  Stands  ick>-I20  years 

II       "       "     "         "        80-100     " 

III  " '        60-80     " 

IV  " 40-60     " 

V      "      "     "         "        20-  40     " 

\'I       " 0-20     " 

In  practice  this  method  is  restricted  to  simple,  regular  con- 
ditions with  artificial  regeneration  after  clear  cutting. 

The  area  "framework"'  has  the  advantage  of  simplicity  and 
ease  of  application.  Within  the  rotation,  if  no  unforeseen  disturb- 
ances occur,  the  normal  age-class  distribution  is  attained.  But 
the  method  has  the  great  disadvantage  that  no  due  regard  is 
paid  to  existing  conditions  (age-class  distribution,  growing  stock, 
increment).  In  the  case  of  an  o\ermature.  broken  stand  more 
should  be  cut  than  a  strict  period  method  permits;  in  the  case 
of  immature  stands,  less  .should  be  cut  than  this  period  method 
provides.  Equality  of  periods  is  secured,  often,  only  at  a  tre- 
mendous sacrifice. 

II.  In  the  volume-period  method  ('' Massenfachwerk  ")  the 
aim  is  to  have  an  equal  yield  in  each  period.  The  various  periods 
are,  therefore,  given  approximately  efjual  volumes,  although  the 
younger  periods  are  sometimes  endoweel   with   slightly  higher 


THE  THEORY  AND  PRACTICE   OF  WORKING  PLANS  91 

volumes  ("Massen")  than  the  older  periods.  The  annual  cut 
is  found  by  dividing  the  volume  of  the  first  period  by  the  number 
of  years  therein  (usually  twenty). 

The  individual  stands  (compartments  and  subcompartments 
are  not  requisite  in  this  method,  nor  even  the  formation  of  work- 
ing circles)  are  assigned  to  the  periods  corresponding  to  their 
age.  Their  volume  is  then  prorated  by  means  of  yield  tables  or, 
at  least,  increment  tables  so  as  to  determine  the  volume  they 
will  have  at  the  time  of  reaching  the  middle  of  the  I  period 
(i.e.,  the  cutting  period).  These  volumes  are  then  compared 
and  the  necessary  adjustments  made;  the  stands  are  shifted 
from  one  period  to  another,  e.g.,  if  the  II  period  were  deficient, 
the  IV  period  excessive,  some  stands  would  have  to  be  shifted 
from  the  IV  into  the  III  period,  and  from  this  into  the  II  period, 
until  the  proper  balance  was  secured.  Since  this  "shiftni^" 
carries  with  it  a  recalculation  of  the  final  yield  because  of  changed 
increment,  the  method  involves  an  enormous  amount  of  cal- 
culation. 

This  method  was  founded  by  G.  L.  Hartig  in  1795.  It  finds 
no  application  in  practice  to-day. 

It  has  the  advantage  over  the  area  "framework"  of  cutting 
an  equal  volume  each  year,  and  hence  more  nearly  approaches  the 
desires  and  needs  of  timber  owner  and  timber  buyer.  But  it  has 
the  glaring  disadvantage  of  attempting  to  regulate  the  cut  for  a 
whole  rotation.  The  future  treatment  of  stands  must  depend  on 
eventuahties  which  cannot  be  foreseen  in  the  present.  Xor 
can  the  method  be  used  in  the  extensive,  irregular  conditions  for 
which  it  is  intended  because  of  the  lack  of  adequate  volume  and 
increment  data.  Furthermore,  an  equal  annual  cut  may  chs- 
regard  overmature  stands  in  need  (financial  and  silvicultural) 
of  cutting,  or,  conversely,  cut  stands  which  are  not  yet  mature. 
It  is  an  unnecessarily  narrow  concept  of  sustained  yield;  it  does 
not  even  secure  normality,  for  (Chapter  I,  Section  i)  volume, 
i.e.,  growing  stock,  alone  is  no  criterion  of  normality. 

III.  The  area-and- volume  period  method  ("  Kombinierte 
Fachwerk")  aims  to  combine  the  area  "framework"  and  the 


02  THE  TIIKORY  AND  PKACTICE   OF   WORKING   PLANS 

volume  "framework"  so  that  each  period  will  contain  approx- 
imately equal  areas  and  volumes. 

Theoretically  this  distribution  of  volumes  is  for  the  whole 
njtalion  and  is  achieved  for  the  I  period  by  means  of  valuation 
surve\s,  for  the  other  periods  by  means  of  yield  tables.  Areas 
and  volumes  are  then  adjusted  as  in  the  area  "framework." 
and  the  volume  "framework."  The  annual  cut  is  then  obtained 
by  dividing  the  area  and  the  volume  of  the  I  period  by  the 
number  of  years  contained  therein  ^usually  twenty")  and 
letting  the  two  factors  of  area  and  volume  act  as  a  mutual 
check.* 

In  practice  the  dilTiculty  of  predicting  volumes  for  a  whole 
rotation  and  of  equalizing  volumes  and  areas,  led  to  an  im- 
portant modification  whereby  the  volumes  arc  calculated  for 
only  the  I  period  or.  at  most,  the  I  and  II  periods;  the  areas, 
however,  delineated,  roughlw  for  the  whole  rotation  so  as  to 
insure  a  sustained  yield. 

This  method  was  founded  by  Ileinrich  Cotta  in  1S04.  The 
important  modification  of  restricting  the  volumes  to  the  I  or 
I  and  II  periods  dates  from  von  Klii)stein  in  1823  and  von  Grebe 
in  1867.  With  this  modification  the  method  is  to-day  used  in 
Prussia,  Hesse,  Wijrttemberg,  and  in  Au>tria  (see  Part  Two, 
Chapter  I). 

This  method  possesses  the  combined  ad\antages  of  the  area 
and  the  volume  "framework";  it  secures  a  greater  regularity 
of  volume  yield  than  does  the  former  and  a  quicker  approach 
toward  normality  than  does  the  hitttr.  (\)mbined  with  a  proper 
distribution  of  the  age  classes  and  a  liberal  interpretation  of 
equality  in  the  periods,  the  method  secures  good  results.  But 
with  too  strict  construction  it  results  in  crass  errors,  such  as 
the  needless  leaving  of  overmature  stands  simply  because  they 

*  A  number  of  variations  have  been  suggested,  e.g.,  annual  cut  =  volume  of 
period -^ years  of  period  (Prussian  practice);    annual  cut  =  area  of  period  -^  *" 
years  of  jwriod  (Auhagen);    annual  cut=area  of  (I  or  I  and  II)  |K?ri(>ds-7-  ^ 
years  and  reduced  to  volume  (von  Stockhausen  and  von  (irebe).     In  practice   V 
both  factors  are  regarded         weal  conditions  demand.  • 


THE    THEORY   AND   PRACTICE    OF    WORKING   PLANS  93 

are  in  the  sacrosanct  II  period  and  can't  be  touched,*  or  the 
cutting  of  immature  stands  which  were  placed  in  the  I  period 
merely  to  "fill  in." 

(b)  Example. — Since,  from  what  has  gone  before  and  what 
follows  (c)  these  methods  are  so  obviously  unsuited  to  American 
conditions,  it  would  serve  no  useful  purpose  to  elaborate  them  by 
examples.! 

(c)  Value  and  Application. — In  most  of  the  German  States 
the  "framework"  methods  were  the  foundation  of  regulated 
management  and  thus  exerted  a  mighty  influence  on  German 
forestry.  But  under  the  conditions  of  modern  times  they 
have  steadily  diminished  in  importance  for  the  following 
reasons : 

(i)  The  silvicultural  method  of  management,  to  which  the 
method  of  regulating  the  ^-ield  must  conform,  is  often  in  direct 
disagreement  with  the  "framework"  method.  The  latter 
demands  that  the  cutting  on  a  given  parcel  {e.g.,  compartment) 
be  completed  within  the  period  (twenty  years).  This  is  often 
inipossible  without  silvicultural  mistakes  and  economic  sacri- 
fices. The  natural  regeneration  of  many  species  requires  more 
than  an  arbitrary  period  of,  say,  twenty  years.  Even  with 
artificial  reproduction  there  are  often  unavoidable  and  unfore- 
seeable events  which  make  complete  regeneration  impossible 
within  the  period. 

(2)  The  concept  of  sustained  yield  which  endows  each  period 
with  an  equal  area  or  volume,  or  both,  is  unnecessarily  narrow. 
For  practical  purposes  it  suffices  that  the  area  or  volume,  or 
both,  of  the  next  working  period  be  in  reasonable  ratio  to  the 
total  area  or  volume,  or  both,  of  the  entire  working  circle. 
^Modern  economic  conditions  have  greatly  changed  the  concept 
of  sustained  yield  (see  Chapter  I,  Section  3).  Present  economic 
conditions  often  demand  the  cutting  of  other  than  the  exact 

*  This  has  led  to  the  growing  demand  for  the  "Opening of  the  II  Period." 
t  These  may  be  found  in  Judeich's  or  Martin's  "Forsteinrichtung"  (see 

Bibliography)    or   in   Lorey's    "Handbuch   der   Forstwissenschaft,"    2d  ed.. 

Vol.  III.,  pp.  411,  415,  and  423. 


m  Tin:    THEORY    AND    PKACTICE    OF    WORKING    PLANS 

period    area;     the   zone    of   economic    inlluencc    has    extended 
tremendously. 

(3)  Cutting  series  (see  Section  2  of  j)resent  chapter)  are  not 
dependent  on  a  i)eriod  method;  indeed  the  latter  often  resulted 
in  cutting  series  of  excessive  length. 

(4)  The  assignment  of  every  compartment  or  other  parcel 
of  the  forest  to  a  certain  period  presumes  a  certainty  of  judgment 
on  the  part  of  the  Forest  Organizer  amounting  to  prescience. 
As  a  result  the  cumbersome  calculations  are  often  valueless. 

(5)  These  calculations  of  yield  for  the  whole  rotation  in 
advance  are  the  more  unnecessary  since,  under  proper  admin- 
istration, there  are  frequent  revisions  of  the  working  jjlan  at 
regular  intervals. 

Taking  all  these  together,  it  is  a  just  criticism  of  the  "frame- 
work" methods  to  say  that  they  are  too  hide-bound,  adapted 
only  to  even-aged  stands,  to  intensive  conditions,  and  to  methods 
of  clear  cutting  with  artificial  regeneration.  The  realization  of 
this  has  brought  about  a  revulsion  away  from  these  methods. 
;Most  of  the  German  States  have  delinitely  abandoned  the 
'"'framework";  in  others  it  still  persists,  but  without  any  weight 
on  the  determination  of  yield  for  future  periods  (see  Part  Two, 
Chajyter  I). 

Review  of  the  Methods  of  Determining  the  Yield 

No  single  one  of  the  methods  described  above  will  be  adapted 
to  all  varieties  of  conditions.  The  choice  of  method  depends: 
I,  on  the  intensity  of  management  possible;  2,  the  kind  of  forest, 
arid  3,  the  silvicultural  system  adopted.  In  the  light  of  these 
considerations,  the  methods  may  be  valued  as  follows: 

Method  No.  i  is  chielly  adapted  to  coppice  and  copj)ice  with 
standards. 

Methods  Nos.  2  and  3  for  provisional  determination  of  the 
yield  under  rough  conditions,  and  as  a  check  on  other  methods. 

Method  No.  4  as  a  check  on  other  methods. 

Methods  Nos.  5-9  ("formula  methods"):    Of  these  all  but 


THE   THEORY   AND   PRACTICE    OF   WORKING    PLANS  95 

No.  9  are  restricted  to  rough  calculations  in  irregular  stands  and 
as  checks  on  other  methods.  No.  9  (Heyer's  formula)  finds  a 
wide  application  in  uneven-aged,  virgin  stands  when  supple- 
mented with  a  careful  cutting  plan. 

Method  No.  10  is  adapted  to  high  diameter  Hmits  and  long 
rotations. 

Method  No.  11  is  adapted  to  mixed  tropical  forests  where 
only  one  or  two  of  the  many  species  are  merchantable. 

Method  No.  12  is  excellently  suited  for  irregular  and  over- 
mature selection  forests. 

Method  No.  13  is  restricted  to  very  crude  conditions. 

Method  No.  14,  variations  I  and  III,  for  coppice  and  coppice 
with  standards. 

Method  No.  15,  for  even-aged  stands  of  only  moderate 
regularity. 

Method  No.  16,  the  ultima  ratio  of  fairly  regular,  even- 
aged  stands. 

Method  No.  17,  not  adapted  to  American  conditions. 

It  is  always  advisable  to  calculate  the  annual  yield  by  a 
variety  of  methods  so  as  to  have  a  check  on  the  figures. 

It  will  often  be  the  case  that  a  crude  working  figure  will 
contain  both  even-aged  and  uneveci-aged  stands.  The  yieM 
must  then  be  calculated  separately  for  each  and,  when  the  plan 
is  revised,  the  time  may  be  ripe  to  make  each  of  the  two  kinds 
of  forest  into  a  distinct  working  figure. 

For  the  determination  of  yield  the  process  should  be  as 
follows:  Fir  si  determine  the  allowed  annual  cut,  in  volume  or 
in  area,  by  means  of  one  or  several  of  the  methods  described. 

Then  choose  the  cutting  areas  according  to  silvicultural  and 
economic  necessities.  To  do  this  requires  a  careful  cutting  plan 
— or  plan  of  distribution  of  the  yield — which  is  next  to  be  con- 
sidered. 


96  THE   THEORY  AND   PR.\CTICE   OF   WORKING   PLANS 


SECTION    TWO 

DISTRIBUTION   OF   YIELD 

To  make  the  actual  annual  cut  conform  directly  to  the 
determined  yield,  i.e.,  to  cut  yearly  the  exact  amount  specit'ied 
in  the  working  plan,  is  neither  possible  nor  desirable.  Unfore- 
seen contingencies,  both  silviculturrl  and  economic,  often 
necessitate  an  overcut  one  year,  a-  undercut  the  following. 
If  the  working  plan  must  be  flexible  jven  under  European  con- 
ditions which  allow  the  forester  to  decide  the  "where"'  and 
"when'*  of  cutting,  how  much  more  is  it  necessary  in  America, 
where  the  "where"  depends  on  profitable  accessibiUty  and  the 
"when"  on  market  conditions. 

It  therefore  sufhces  entirely  to  keep  witliin  the  allowed  cut 
for  the  working  period  of  ten  or  twenty  years — the  time  before 
the  next  revision  of  the  working  plan — and  to  make  no  attempt 
to  cut  one-tenth  or  one-twentieth  thereof  each  year.  In  other 
words:  a  periodic  sustained  yield  rather  than  an  annual  sus- 
tained yield  should  be  the  aim. 

For  similar  reasons,  a  great  flexibihty  must  be  allowed  in  the 
selection  of  the  actual  cutting  areas.  The  working  plan  properly 
lists  certain  areas  to  be  cut  within  the  working  period  of  ten  or 
twenty  years — the  time  before  the  next  revision  of  the 
working  plan — but  these  cannot  be  rigidly  adhered  to,  cannot 
in  Europe,  and  much  less  so  in  America.  European  experience 
has  brought  about  a  great  liberality  in  this  regard— the  executive 
(officer  in  charge  of  the  forest  is  given  freedom  of  choice  as  to 
what  areas  he  wishes  to  cut  each  year  of  the  working  period,* 
this  yearly  cutting  plan  is  viseed  and  approved  by  his  superior 
ofTicers,  otherwise  he  has  carte  blanche  to  exercise  his  judgment. 
No  other  course  is  possible  in  America,  where  conditions  are  far 

*  With  due  regard,  of  course,  to  supplying  local  needs  for  timber  and  to  a 
proper  distribution  of  classes  of  timber  so  as  to  keep  values  from  fluctuating 
and  to  provide  industries  dependent  on  the  forests  with  the  timber  they  need. 


THE  THEORY  AND  PR-\CTICE    OF   WORKING  PLANS  97 

more  extensive.  The  working  plan  designates  certain  areas^ 
certain  cutting  series  even;  beyond  this  it  cannot  go.  It  must 
help  and  not  hamper  the  managing  officer.  It  is  merely  a  frame 
within  which  he  exercises  his  individual  ingenuity. 

Selection  of  Stands  to  be  Cut 

The  conditions  which  govern  the  selection  of  stands  to  be 
cut  are:  market,  maturity,  damage  (insects,  fungi,  etc.),  wind- 
fall, fire,  and  the  like. 

Under  market  are  contained  all  the  manifold  considerations 
of  logging  accessibility,  of  profit  in  cutting  and  marketing,  and 
the  sizes  and  species  which  can  be  logged.  For  example,  a  spruce 
stand  on  top  of  an  isolated  mountain  like  Mt.  Graham  in  Arizona 
may  be  fully  mature  and  in  need  of  cutting,  but  unless  there  are 
adequate  logging  devices  which  can  market  the  timber  at  a 
reasonable  profit,  it  is  useless  to  designate  this  as  the  sole  cutting 
area  of  the  next  working  period.  Similarly,  there  may  be  large 
amounts  of  fir  (abies)  in  mixture  with  other  species  such  as 
spruce  and  Douglas  fir,  but  unless  the  fir  is  accepted  as  lumber 
and  as  ties  it  cannot  be  counted  on  the  same  basis  with  the 
other  species.  Finally,  where  material  below  a  certain  diameter 
cannot  be  marketed  at  a  profit  it  should  not  be  considered  a  part 
of  the  cut  of  the  next  working  period.  In  other  words,  the 
cutting  plan  must  deal  first  with  actuahties  confronting  the 
administrative  officer  and  put  h}pothetical  utilization  in  a 
subordinate  place. 

Other  things  being  equal,  the  cutting  plan  provides  for  the 
logging  of  all  mature  and  overmature  stands,  i.e.,  such  as  have 
attained  or  passed  the  rotation  age.  If  the  forest  is  even-aged 
or  fairly  so,  these  stands  are  those  of  the  highest  age  class  or 
classes. 

Stands  which  show  damage  by  insects,  fungi,  etc.,  should 
usually  be  cut;  they  are  therefore  included  in  the  cutting  plan 
for  the  next  working  period. 

Stands  which  have  suffered  severe  windfall  must  often  be 


98  TIIE   THEORY  AND  PRACTICE   OF   WORKING   PLAN'S 

cut  speedily  so  as  to  prevent  further  damage.*  But.  further 
than  this,  the  lessons  of  past  windfall  must  be  api)lied  in  dis- 
tributing the  yield — e.g.,  to  remove  a  certain  stand  may  expose 
the  one  behind  it  and  subject  it  to  almost  certain  windfall. 
This  can  best  be  regulated  by  the  formation  of  cutting  series, 
described  below.  The  windfall  danger  varies,  of  course,  with 
species  and  character  of  stand,  with  soil  and  site,  and  with  the 
prevailing  wind  direction.  Spruce  is  exceedingly  subject  to 
windfall  and  often  requires  especial  precautions. 

Stands  damaged  by  fire  enough  to  necessitate  regeneration, 
but  not  enough  to  be  rendered  unmerchantable,  must  be  dis- 
posed of  speedily  before  further  deterioration. 

Mapping  of  Stands  to  be  Cut 

The  t\pe  and  stand  map  of  the  forest  is  of  the  greatest  value 
in  deciding  on  the  areas  to  be  included  in  the  cutting  plan  for 
the  working  period,  especially  when  supplemented  by  complete 
and  reliable  forest  descriptions  of  each  unit.  Referring  to  the 
map  given  above  under  Chapter  I,  Section  2,  ''Maps  and  Tables," 
and  presuming  that  it  is  possible  to  log  and  market  where,  when, 
and  what  one  wishes,  but  that  the  windfall  danger  is  great, 
making  many  "points  of  attack"  preferable  to  extensive,  con- 
secutive cutting  areas,  the  following  stands  would  be  chosen: 

4a,  yc,  and  8a  can  be  cut  without  in  the  least  endangering 
any  other  stands. 

6e,  however,  though  it  is  sixty-five  years  old,  cannot  be  cut 
before  the  larger,  but  only  sixty-year-old  6a,  because  this  would 
immediately  subject  6a  to  heavy  windfalls.  Hence  6e  must 
wait  until  6a  is  cut.  This  involves  a  balancing  of  whether  it  is 
the  more  desirable  to  cut  6a  and  6e  now  or  to  wait  until  6a  is 
fully  mature.  Other  things  being  equal,  6e  must  wait,  since  it  is 
the  smaller. 

The  stands  or  blocks  in  which  it  is  intended  to  cut  during 

*  In  the  spruce  stands  of  the  Black  Forest,  Germany,  it  is  not  uncommon 
to  have  the  entire  annual  cut  taken  up  by  unexixx:ted  windfalls. 


THE  THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  WORKING  PLANS  99 

the  coming  working  period  should  be  indicated  on  the  working 
map  either  by  color,  or  shading,  or  symbol.  The  kind  of  cutting 
intended,  e.g.,  shelterwood,  can  also  be  indicated  by  using  the 
symbols  given  in  the  "General  Stand  Table,"  Chapter  I,  Sec- 
tion 2,  above. 

Cutting  Series 

When  one  cutting  area  is  purposely  joined  to  another  and  this 
to  a  third,  etc.,  they  form  a  cutting  series.  Cuttino.  series  always 
progress  from  some  initial  "point  of  attack"  against  the  pre- 
vailing wind  direction.  They  are  shown  on  the  map  by  arrows. 
The  formation  of  cutting  series  is  a  tremendous  safeguard 
against  windfall,  especially  where  at  the  point  of  attack  a  forest 
mantle  has  formed  on  the  edge  of  the  stand  to  leeward.  This 
mantle  consists  of  the  persisting  middle  and  lower  branches  of 
the  trees  on  the  edge  of  the  stand.  It  is  artificially  stimulated 
during  the  youth  of  the  stand  by  the  cutting  through  of  com- 
partment lines  or  "Schneisen"  (see  Chapter  I,  Section  2,  "Boun- 
daries of  Divisions"),  or  forms  naturally  along  a  road,  stream, 
or  other  topographic  interruption.  It  can  also  be  created  by 
heavy  thinning  along  the  edge  of  a  stand  or  compartment 
whereby  the  crowns  remain  deep  and  hence  the  trees  windfirm. 

Cutting  series  can  seldom  be  arranged  without  some  minor 
sacrifices.  For  example,  in  the  map  the  small,  forty-eight-year 
old  stand  yd  lies  in  the  midst  of  the  nearly  merchantable  seventy- 
two-year  old  stand  ye:  yd  would  be  sacrificed  to  the  cutting 
series,  the  lesser  good  to  the  greater.  Only  if  the  borders  of  yd 
were  liberated  so  as  to  form  a  mantle,  could  it  be  left  after  ye 
has  been  cut.  This  would  be  done  in  the  case  of  yg,  since  it  is  a 
much  younger  stand. 

Cutting  series  must  be  decided  upon  by  the  Forest  Organizer 
during  the  progress  of  the  field  work  in  order  to  gauge  the  sac- 
rifices properly.  They  can  be  provisionally  entered  on  the 
working  map  by  using  dotted  arrows. 

Theoretically  the  cutting  series  are  like  steps,  actually  they 


]00  Tin:    THEORY    AND   PRACTICE    OF    WORKINT.    PLAN'S 

are  always  somewhat  irregular  even  under  favorable  conditions. 
In  the  map,  5d  and  h,  and  50,  f,  g,  and  i  obviously  belong  to 
two  cutting  series.  But  5I  is  a  separate  proposition  because  it 
must  be  cut  before  5h  since  it  is  more  than  twice  as  old  (sh  = 
23  years,  51  =  52  years). 

Cutting  series  must  be  planned  decades  in  advance,  and 
require  careful  thought  and  accurate  judgment.  The  cutting 
of  such  a  series  may  require  many  years;  early  mistakes  are 
diflicult  to  correct. 

Cutting  series  are  necessary  only  in  even-aged  stands  of 
shallow-rooted  species,  but  there  they  are  of  tremendous  im- 
portance.* Their  regular  adoption  in  America  is  still  of  the 
future,  but  the  i)rinciple  can  be  utilized  now. 

Plan  of  Cutting 

Having  determined  "how  much''  and  ''where"  to  cut  during 
the  ensuing  working  period,  this  is  reduced  to  a  documentary 
plan  of  cutting  or  "felling  budget." 

Two  kinds  of  cutting  plans  should  usually  be  drawn  up: 
I,  a  general  one  for  the  entire  working  period — i.e.,  for  the  num- 
ber of  years  to  elapse  before  the  next  revision  of  the  working 
plan,  generally  ten  years;  and  II,  a  specific  plan  for  the  ensuing 
year. 

I.  The  general  cutting  j)lan  j)rovi(les  cutting  areas  sufticient 
to  yield  (if  the  working  period  is  ten  years)  at  least  ten  times 
the  volume  of  the  allowed  annual  cut  or  ten  times  the  area, 
as  the  case  may  be.  It  should,  however,  provide  for  some- 
what more,  so  as  to  provide  additional  cutting  areas  in  case  of 
unforeseen  contingencies  making  the  cutting  of  certain  areas 
impractical  or  allowing  a  higher  cut  than  was  originally  intended. 
Under  fairly  regular  conditions  the  cutting  plan  may  cover  the 
next  twenty  years,  or  even  forty  years,  but  under  average  Amer- 

*  By  this  means  windfall  is  checked  and  controlled  in  the  spruce  forests 
of  Saxony;  the  lack  of  cutting;  scries  is  largely  accountable  for  the  trenicndons 
uindfall  in  the  sj)ruce  stands  of  the  Black  Forest  in  Baden. 


THE   THEORY  AND  PRACTICE   OF  WORKING  PLANS 


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102         THE   THEORY   AND    PR.\CTICE   OF   WORKING   PLANS 

ican  conditions  this  is  little  better  than  a  useless  play.  Xor, 
under  most  American  conditions,  is  it  necessary  or  advisable 
to  prorate  the  increment  to  the  middle  of  the  cutting  period. 
Such  corrections  had  best  be  left  to  frequent  revisions  of  the 
working  plan  at  regular  intervals. 

The  general  cutting  plan  should  take  the  form*  on  preced- 
ing page: 

II.  The  specific  cutting  plan  for  the  ensuing  year,  calendar 
or  fiscal,  is  drawn  up  by  the  administrati\e  ollicer  in  charge  of 
the  forest  and  submitted  b}-  liim  to  his  superior  ofhcers  (if  he 
has  any)  for  approval.  Thus  it  is  really  a  part  of  administration 
and  not  of  forest  organization,  yet  it  is  closely  Unkcd  thereto. 
The  administrator,  through  his  intimate  knowledge  of  the  forest 
and  of  the  e.xact  status  of  local  conditions  of  logging,  market, 
etc.,  selects  from  out  the  general  cutting  plan  those  areas  which 
in  his  judgment  should  be  cut  during  the  ensuing  year.  On 
large  forests  he  usually  consults  each  ranger  on  the  subject.! 
A  convenient  form  for  the  annual  cutting  plan  is  as  follows. 
This  can  be  printed  or  otherwise  manifolded  and  serve  as  a 
permanent  record.     (See  next  page.) 

In  the  following  table,  column  4  contains  the  estimated  volume 
to  be  cut  during  the  year.  If  instead  of  compartment  10,  com- 
partment 9b  had  been  chosen,  with  its  540  M.  of  spruce,  the 
value  in  column  4  would  have  been  set  as  directly  equal  the 
allowed  annual  cut.  or  120  M.  Column  5  is  always  the  volume 
actually  cut.  Column  6  is  merely  for  convenience  in  checking 
the  results  of  estimates  as  a  guide  to  their  accuracy.  When 
column  4  contains  only  part  of  a  compartment,  column  6  must 
be  deferred  until  the  entire  compartment  has  been  cut  over. 

Where  conditions  are  sufhciently  intensive  the  table  may 
include  areas  as  well  as  volumes. 

*The  figures  are  taken  from  the  General  Stand  Table,  Chapter  I,  Sec- 
tion 2,  above. 

t  In  Prussia  the  Obcrforstcr  (supervisor)  calls  on  each  Forstcr  (ranger) 
for  an  annual  cutting  plan  for  his  district.  These  he  then  combines  for  the 
whole  forest. 


THE   THEORY  AND   PR.^CTICE   OF   WORKING   PLANS  103 


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104  THE   THEORY   AND   PILACTICE   OF   WORKING   PLANS 

Descriptions  and  further  explanations  can  always  be  added 
if  advisable  for  clearness. 

It  is  obvious  that  the  cutting  plan  proper  consists  only  of 
columns  i,  2,  3,  and  4  and  the  comparison  of  column  4  with  the 
allowed  annual  cut.  But  for  purposes  of  convenience  columns 
5  and  6  are  added,  thus  making  the  record  complete,  though 
they  cannot  be  filled  until  after  the  cutting  is  fmished.  Based 
on  this  record,  the  cutting  plan  for  1913  is  computed.  Having 
saved  20  M.  in  1912,  the  administrator  would  not  hesitate  to 
cut  120  +  20=140  M.  in  1913.  Indeed,  considerable  leeway  is 
customary  in  this  respect,  so  as  not  to  tie  the  administrator's 
hands.* 

At  the  end  of  the  decade,  if  that  is  the  working  period,  the 
annual  cutting  plan  sheets  are  added  up  and  the  results  com- 
pared with  the  general  cutting  plan;  thc\-  then  serve  as  most 
valuable  data  for  the  revision  of  the  working  plan  (see  Chapter  III 
below) . 


SECTION'    THREE 

REGULATION  OF  YIELD   IN  SPECL\L   CASES 

This  section  considers  the  methods  of  regulating  the  yield 
in  special  cases,  such  as,  I  abnormal  forests,  II  transition  forests, 
III  wood-lots,  and  J\  turpentine  forests.  Much  of  what  has  gone 
before  will  apply  directly;  it  is  only  necessary  here  to  note  the 
exceptions  and  departures. 

I.  Regulation  of  Abnormal  Forests 

Strictly  speaking  all  forests  are  abnormal  which  do  not 
have  a  normal  growing  stock,  a  normal  increment,  and  a  normal 
distribution  of  the  age  classes  (Chapter  I,  Section  i).    But  in 

*  In  Prussia  the  Obcrforstcr  (supervisor)  may  exceed  the  allowed  cut  by 
10  per  cent  without  first  seeking  permission  from  his  superiors. 


THE   THEORY    AND    PRACTICE    OF   WORKING   PLANS  105 

current  usage  the  term  "abnormal"  is  restricted  to  those  forests 
which  show  striking  irregularities — e.g.,  a  very  sparse,  patchy- 
stocking,  or  a  marked  excess  of  a  single  age  class.  In  the  latter 
case  it  is  sometimes  possible,  if  the  entire  stand  is  mature  or  past 
maturity,  to  cut  it  all  off  at  once,  invest  the  resulting  capital, 
and  let  the  interest  thereon  take  the  place  of  the  sustained 
timber  yield. 

But  ordinarily  the  timber  owner  needs  timber  rather  than 
money  wherewith  to  supply  his  saw-mills,  pulp-mills,  etc.  In 
the  case  of  the  government  it  is  obviously  the  correct  pohtical 
economy  to  be  able  to  supply  without  undue  interruption  the 
necessary  raw  material  to  the  timber-using  industries  dependent 
on  the  national  or  State  forests.  Furthermore,  it  is  usually  to 
the  interest  of  the  private  owner  to  lumber  conservatively  and 
to  plan  for  a  second  cut  rather  than  to  slash  and  abandon.  By 
so  doing  he  may,  under  average  conditions,  reasonably  expect 
a  five  or  six  per  cent  return  upon  his  investment  and,  if  the 
shortage  of  lumber  becomes  as  great  as  is  freely  predicted, 
stumpage  values  will  increase  prodigiously  and  profits  pro- 
portionately. 

Assuming,  therefore,  that  the  abnormal  forest  of  a  single  age 
class  is  not  to  be  exploited,  but  to  be  managed  with  a  liberal 
construction  of  sustained  yield,  the  regulation  is  as  follows: 

r 

If  the  age  is  less  than  —  only  thinnings  are  possible. 

y 

If  the  age  is  more  than  — -  cutting  is  permissible,  usually  less 

than  the  allowed  annual  cut  up  to  the  age  of  ^<^r,  usually  more 
than  the  allowed  annual  cut  beyond  the  age  of  ^{r. 

The  object  is  to  replace  the  excess  of  slow-growing  mature 
and  overmature  stands  by  young,  thrifty  stands  of  rapid  incre- 
ment. This  reduction  of  excess  growing  stock  must  never  be 
brought  about  at  the  expense  of  glutting  the  timber  market 
and  forcing  down  prices.  In  America  the  silvicultural  needs 
must,  for  the  present  at  least,  be  subordinate  to  the  economic 
demands.    "In  spite  of  the  loss  from  deterioration,  the  country 


100  THE   TUF.ORY  AND  PRACTICE   OF  WORKING  PLAN'S 

as  a  whole  may  be  benefited  more  by  reserving  a  considerable 
f>ortion  of  these  stands  against  the  time  of  critical  need  than  by 
cutting  them  off  too  rapidly,  under  present  market  conditions, 
in  order  to  put  the  growing  power  of  the  soil  to  work."  * 

II.  Regul.vtion  of  Transition  Forests 

Forests  in  tran.sition  from  high  forest  to  coppice  or,  which 
is  more  frequently  the  case,  from  coppice  to  high  forest,  or  from 
crude  selection  to  even-aged  forests,  require  special  regulation. 

The  transition  from  coppice  to  high  forest  involves  the 
replacing  of  sprouts  by  seedlings.  The  process  of  conversion  is, 
briefly,  as  follows:  Instead  of  cutting  the  coppice  at  the  thirtieth 
year  or  thereabouts,  as  is  usually  done,  it  is  allowed  to  grow 
until  the  si.xtieth  year  or  thereabouts.  If  the  coppice  does  not 
already  contain  sufikient  seedling  trees  in  mi.\ture,  these  must 
be  supplied  artificially.  During  the  last  decades,  it  is  necessary 
to  free  the  crowns  of  the  seed-bearing  standards  from  the  en- 
croaching coppice.  This  is  done  by  means  of  preparatory  cuts 
at  intervals  of  about  ten  years. 

When  the  coppice  is  about  sixty  years  old,  the  regeneration 
cutting  begins.  This  aims  to  open  up  the  stand  by  cutting 
most  of  the  coppice,  allowing  the  seed  from  the  standards  to 
regenerate  the  area.  The  regeneration  cutting  is  repeated  four 
or  five  times  at  intervals  of  about  five  years,  and  gradually 
changes  from  cuts  to  seed  up  the  area  for  plant,  if  artificially) 
to  cuts  giving  light  to  seedlings  obtained,  and  at  last  to  final 
removal  cuttings.  The  last  two  cuts  (light  giving  and  final 
removal)  operate  not  only  in  the  coppice,  but  also  in  the  seed- 
bearing  standards  which  may  be  present  (coppice  with  stand- 
ards). 

The  j)erio(l  of  transition  is  thus  thirty  years'  additional 
coppice  plus  twenty  years  of  regeneration  cutting  if  the  coppice 


•  W.  B.  Grcclcy  in  "  National  Forest  Sales  on   the  Pacific  Coast,"   "  Pro- 
ceedings of  the  Society  of  American  Foresters,"  Vol.  VII.,  No,  i,  p.  46. 


THE  THEORY  AND  PIL\CTICE   OF   WORKING  PLANS  107 

contains  standards;  otherwise  extensive  planting  is  necessary. 
The  transition  from  coppice  with  standards  to  high  forest  is 
cheaper  and  easier  than  is  the  transition  from  straight  coppice. 
Fifty  years  is  the  usual  transition  period,  or  about  one-fourth 
to  one-third  the  high-forest  rotation.  Even  by  planting  the 
seedlings  the  time  can  only  be  shortened  by  greatly  heightened 
annual  expense  unless  the  area  to  be  transformed  is  small. 
There  is  also  the  danger  of  creating  large  areas  of  even-aged 
stands  if  too  much  is  planted  each  year. 

The  forest  regulation  consists  of  a  general  cutting  plan 
(Section  2,  this  chapter)  for  the  whole  period  of  transition.  This 
cutting  plan  designates  for  each  of  the  stages  of  transformation 
the  approximate  amount  to  be  cut  and  how  the  cut  is  to  be 
conducted.  Where  the  seedlings  have  to  be  introduced  arti- 
ficially, this  must  be  supplemented  by  a  careful  planting  plan 
(Chapter  III),  showing  species,  kind  of  stock,  spacing,  etc.,  and 
the  amounts  and  areas  to  be  planted  in- each  stage  of  the  trans- 
formation. 

It  is  obvious  that  the  sustained  yield  suffers  temporarily 
because  of  the  cessation  of  coppice  yields  and  the  delay  in 
securing  high- forest  yields.  To  minimize  this  delay  it  is  often 
advisable  to  plant  species  of  fairly  rapid  growth  and  hence  low 
rotation  age,  such  as  chestnut,  ash,  pine,  European  larch,  etc. 

The  transition  from  selection  (aU-aged)  forest  to  even-aged 
forest  is  comparatively  simple,  but  requires  one  or  two  rotations. 
The  object  is  secured  by  a  change  in  the  silvicultural  system 
employed,  and  can  be  brought  about  in  a  variety  of  ways. 

The  quickest  and  most  useful  is  by  means  of  shelterwood- 
selection  cuttings  (see  Chapter  I,  Section  3),  whereby  the  period 
of  regeneration  is  reduced  from  the  entire  rotation  to  30  to  50 
years.  With  the  next  rotation  the  method  can  still  further 
approach  the  shelterwood  system,  if  conditions  are  favorable, 
and  the  period  of  regeneration  reduced  to  from  10  to  15  years, 
resulting  in  virtually  even-aged  stands. 

Where  the  selection  forest  is  already  very  group-wise  (even- 
aged  in  groups),  the  transition  can  take  advantage  of  this  by 


lOS  THE    TMKORY    AND    PRACTICE    f)F    WORKING    PLANS 

employing  the  shelterwood-group  system  (sec  Chapter  I.  Sec- 
tion 3). 

The  forest  rcguhition  consists  in  modifying  the  general 
cutting  plan  to  meet  the  changed  conditions — i.e.,  a  high  cut 
during  the  regeneration  period  followed  by  a  cessation  of  cutting 
until  the  young  growth  is  merchantable,  instead  of  the  more 
frequently  recurring  cutting  cycles  of  the  selection  forest.  The 
general  cutting  plan  is  also  extended  so  as  to  cover  the  entire 
period  of  regeneration  (30  to  50  years)  instead  of  merely  a 
decade  or  so. 

111.  Regulation  of  Wood-lots 

Wood-lots  are  seldom  managed  by  a  technically  trained 
forester,  hence  the  prescribed  regulation  must  be  so  simple,  clear, 
and  direct  that  any  layman  can  carry  it  out.  The  owner  of  the 
wood-lot  is  interested  chiefly  in  having  a  sustained  yield.  This 
feature  should,  therefore,  be  emphasized  by  determining  the 
allowed  annual  and  periodic  cut  as  exactly  as  possible  by  area 
or  volume,  or  both.  This  should  be  incorporated  in  a  detailed 
general  cutting  plan  and  the  cutting  areas  for  the  next  working 
period  indicated  on  a  map  of  the  wood-lot. 

Where  frequent  revisions  are  possible,  the  prescriptions  can 
l)e  confined  to  the  next  decade  or  so.  but  where  frequent  revisions 
are  out  of  the  question  the  progress  of  management  should  be 
sketched  for  the  whole  rotation  as  a  guide  to  the  owner. 

The  regulation  of  yield  in  wood-lots  must  conform  primarily 
to  the  wishes  and  desires  of  the  owner,  but  it  can  usually  accom- 
plish these  withotit  the  waste  incident  to  haphazard  manage- 
ment, and  hence  it  is  of  the  greatest  value  to  draw  up  simj^le 
working  plans  even  for  small  wood-lots.  The  realization  of  this 
has  led  to  compulsory  working  jjlans  for  private  tracts,  large 
and  small,  in  several  of  the  European  States,  notably  Prussia. 

IV.  Regulation  of  Turpentine  Forests 

The  imminent  dearth  of  timber  available  for  naval  stores 
emphasizes  the  urgent  necessity  of  abandoning  wasteful,  destruc- 


THE  THEORY  AND  PR.A.CTICE   OF  WORKING  PLANS  109 

tive  methods  of  turpentining  in  favor  of  a  more  conservative 
utilization  and  a  regulated  yield. 

The  field  data  necessary  for  the  regulation  of  the  turpentine 
yield  are,  besides  a  thorough  acquaintance  with  the  general  and 
local  turpentine  business: 

(i)  The  distribution  of  the  diameter  classes  on  each  manage- 
ment or  surv^ey  unit.*  This  need  not  be  by  inch  classes,  but 
according  to  the  cupping  limits,  explained  below.  Strip  valua- 
tion sur\'eys,  two  chains  wide,  are  excellent  for  this  purpose. 

(2)  The  local  turpentining  quality  of  each  stand,  gauged  by 
the  number  of  cups  per  acre. 

(3)  The  amount  and  character  of  young  growth  below  the 
minimum  turpentining  diameter  for  each  management  or  survey 
unit,  supplemented  by  detailed  figures  from  sample  areas  more 
carefully  measured,  i.e.,  calipered  instead  of  estimated  ocularly. 

(4)  The  board  measure  contents  of  stands.  The  cord-wood 
contents  of  undergrowth,  etc. 

(5)  The  silvical  characteristics — maturity,  height,  thrift- 
iness,  etc. 

(6)  Diameter  increment  tables  showing  time  required  to 
grow  from  one-inch  class  to  the  next. 

For  conservative  turpentining,  the  use  of  a  system  of  cupping 
is  basic.  Scarcely  less  so  is  the  cupping  to  a  diameter  limit — 
e.g.,  no  cups  on  trees  below  eleven  inches  in  diameter,  and  never 
more  than  three  cups  on  any  tree.  Furthermore,  in  order  to 
prolong  the  productivity  of  the  tree  and  minimize  the  injury,  the 
chipping  must  be  shallow  and  light. 

A  definite  rotation  must  be  adopted  for  the  working  of  the 
cropsf — e.g.,  by  shallow  and  light  chipping  the  first  faces  can  be 
chipped  for  three  years,  when  the  faces  will  be  about  45  to  50  inch- 
es in  height,  the  cups  being  moved  up  each  year.  Then  the  faces 
are  worked  with  a  "puller,"  a  chipping  tool  with  a  long  handle,  for 
another  three  years,  which  makes  the  faces  from  seven  to  eight  feet 

*  E.g.,  blocks,  compartments,  subcompartments,  or  townships,  sections, 
quarter-sections,  etc. 

t  A  "crop"  is  commonly  considered  as  containing  10,000  cup" 


110  THE   THEORY   AND   PR.ACTICE   OF   WORKING   PLANS 

high.  The  tree  is  then  allowed  to  recuperate  for  three  years,  when 
"back,  cups"  are  placed  hclwccn  the  old  faces  and  worked  for 
three  years.  The  final  period  of  three  years'  working  is  secured 
from  the  high-face  back  cups.  Thus  each  tree  is  worked  for 
twelve  years,  extending  over  a  period  of  fifteen.  When  the 
trees  have  been  completely  worked,  they  are  cut  for  saw-timber, 
ties,  or  other  material.*  Certain  of  them  are  left  as  seed  trees 
(Chapter  I,  Section  3),  if  that  form  of  regeneration  is  sought, 
or  else  the  seeding  is  from  the  side  by  the  strip  system  (Chapter 
I,  Section  3).  In  case  of  artificial  regeneration,  the  worked  and 
logged  area  is  resown  or  replanted.  When  the  young  growth  has 
reached  sufficient  size,  the  larger  trees  are  turpentined,  and 
thus  the  cycle  is  completed. 

The  following  illustration  is  taken  from  management  of  the 
Choctawhatchee  Division  of  the  Florida  National  Forest: 

Cupping  to  a  diameter  limit:  No  cups  on  trees  ten  inches  or 
less  in  diameter  (outside  the  bark  at  2^^  feet  above  the  groundf) : 

1  cup   on  trees  11-15  inches  inclusive. 

2  cups  "       "     16-20       "  " 

3  cups  "       "21  "      and  over. 
Not  more  than  three  cups  on  any  tree. 

The  width  of  the  face  varies  from  9  to  14  inches,  according 
to  the  size  of  the  tree,  hence  room  is  always  left  for  the  future 
back  cups,  especially  since  the  "bars"  between  the  faces  arc  at 
least  4  inches  wide.  However,  to  get  10,000  back  cups  nearly 
twice  the  area  must  be  used  as  for  virgin  cups,  because  none 
of  the  three-cup  trees,  and  but  very  few  of  the  two-cup  trees, 
can  be  back  cupped,  and  never  more  than  one  back  cup  can  be 
placed  on  a  cupped  tree. 

Working  of  Crops  in  Rotation. — Under  the  system  outlined, 
an  average  stand  of  one  acre  on  which  cupping  was  begun  in 

*  The  turpentined  trees  of  France  are  highly  prized  in  England  as  mine 
timbers. 

t  If  measured  at  breast  high  (4H  ft)  the  diamcterclassesmust  bo  rcducicl, 
say,  one  inch;  e.g.,  the  two-cup  class  becomes  from  15-19  inches  inclusive. 
The  exact  taper  is  found  by  means  of  local  measurements. 


THE  THEORY  AND  PRACTICE   OF  WORKING  PLANS  111 

1 910  with  a  yield  of  twenty  virgin  cups  will  have,  according 
to  the  present  plans  of  management,  the  following  turpentining 
history: 

1910-1912  inclusive,  3  years,  20  virgin  cups 
1913-1915  "  3      "        20  high-face  cups 

1916-1918  "  3      "  resting  period 

1919-1921  "  3      "        10  back  cups 

1922-1924         "  3      "        10  high-face  back  cups 

Total,  60  cups 

Method  of  Regulating  Yield. — This  method  of  working  the 
crops  in  rotation  has  been  applied  to  the  whole  Choctawhatchee 
Division.  Under  the  unfavorable  conditions  of  slow  growth  and 
small  timber,  it  appears  necessary  to  wait  100  years  before 
obtaining  a  second  cupping  equal  to  the  first.  On  this  basis 
about  six  and  two- thirds  new  crops  (66,000  cups)  can  be  worked 
each  year  for  the  next  100  years  with  a  probable  increase  of  from 
ten  to  fifteen  crops  annually  thereafter.  This  does  not  mean 
six  and  two-thirds  virgin  cups  each  year,  but  includes  the  high- 
face,  back  cups,  and  high-face  back  cups,  since,  according  to  the 
estimates,  there  are  on  the  whole  Division: 

220  crops  of  virgin  cups 
220        "         high-face  cups 
no       "        back  cups 
no       "        high-face  back  cups 
Total,  660  crops,  or  6,600,000  cups 

However,  in  order  to  reduce  the  forest  to  normal  and  to  fully 
utilize  merchantable  timber,  the  annual  permits  for  the  decade 
1 9 ID  to  1920  have  not  been  restricted  to  six  and  two-thirds  new 
crops.  The  following  diagram  (Fig.  2)  shows  the  number  of 
crops  (10,000  cups  each)  operative  annually  for  the  period  1910 
to  1920.  "First  permit"  means  virgin  cups,  "second"  means 
high-face  cups,  "third"  means  back  cups,  and  "fourth"  means 
high-face  back  cups. 

At  the  end  of  the  ten  years  the  Choctawhatchee  Division 
will  practically  be  producing  normally  and  should  continue  to 
do  so  during  the  remainder  of  the  hundred-year  cycle  which  must 
elapse  before  a  second  cupping  is  possible. 


11: 


THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING   PLANS 


It  should  be  remembered,  in  this  comiection,  that  any  regula 
tion  by  number  of  cups  must  be  approximate,  since  the  area 
required  for  a  crop  of  cups  is  so  variable.    Therefore,  it  is  the 


TOTAL         246.0 

NORMAL      66.0 

SURPLUS  REMOVED     180.0 


LEGEND 
P»i  l<i<l  of  WorkluK 


•^^— Period  of  IlcsUiig 


Tk;.  2. 


practice  of  the  govemnunt  lo  place  on  the  market  each  year  a 
certain  area  (by  legal  subdivisions)  which  the  estimates  show 
to  contain  appro.ximately  the  scheduled  number  of  cups. 


CHAPTER   III 

THE    WORKING-PLAN    DOCUMENT 

SECTION   ONE 

CONTENTS  AND   FORM 

The  working-plan  document  is  the  vehicle  for  recording 
the  saUent  features  of  a  forest  bearing  on  its  organization  and 
the  detailed  prescriptions  of  that  organization  for  the  next 
working  period.  Simplicity  and  brevity  are  the  key-notes.  The 
descriptive  portion  is  usually  confined  to  such  short  statements 
as  suffice  to  bring  to  the  trained  forester's  eye  the  picture  of  the 
forest  as  it  is  in  its  essentials,  but,  occasionally,  a  more  detailed 
description  is  warranted  so  as  to  make  the  plan  comprehensible 
to  a  layman,  e.g.,  where  the  plan  is  to  be  executed  by  a  layman- 
owner  (see  pre\dous  chapter,  Section  3,  "Wood-lots"). 

In  the  interests  of  clearness  and  brevity  data  should  be 
tabulated  wherever  possible,  e.g.,  estimates,  stand  tables,  age- 
class  tables,  etc.  Maps,  also,  are  a  powerful  aid  in  graphic 
presentation  of  the  data. 

The  working-plan  document  may  be  confined  to  the  silvi- 
cultural  management,  or  it  may  cover  all  the  activities  of  a 
forest  such  as  general  administration,  grazing  management, 
permanent  improvements,  forest  protection,  and  use  of  forest 
land  (see  Introduction);  in  other  words,  be  a  complete  forest 
plan.  The  desirability  of  including  these  sundry  subjects 
depends  on  their  importance  and  the  purpose  of  the  plan. 
National  forests  usually  require  complete  plans  (see  Part  Two, 
Section  2).  Where  other  subjects  than  that  of  silvicultural 
management  are  to  be  included,  the  descriptive  data  preceding 
the  plan  proper  must  be  amplified  accordingly  (see  Typical 
Outline  for  America,  next  section). 


114  THE   THEORY   AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING  PLANS 

The  essential  contents  of  a  working  i)lan  confined  to  sihi- 
cultural  management  are  (i)  Orientation,  i-c,  location,  size, 
history  of  forest  with  important  changes,  salient  physiographic, 
social,  and  industrial  features,  time,  method,  and  personnel  of 
reconnaissance  and  work  of  organization,  period  for  which  made 
(working  period),  digest  of  working-plan  conference,  if  had; 
(2)  Foundation,  i.e.,  growing  stock  (estimates)  and  increment, 
and  (if  even-aged)  distribution  of  the  age  classes,  general  stand 
table,  maps,  forest  description,  division  of  area;  (3)  Recom- 
mendation: methods  of  management,  past,  present,  and  pro- 
posed, i.e.,  governing  conditions,  object  of  management,  sihi- 
cultural  system,  rotation,  etc.;  (4)  Regulation,  i.e.,  yield 
determination  and  distribution,  general  and  annual  cut- 
ting plan,  corresponding  general  and  annual  planting  plans 
(Section  3). 

These  essentials  may  be  presented  in  various  forms,  some 
of  which  are  given  in  the  following  section,  varying  with  the 
needs  and  desires  of  the  administrative  officers.  The  form  of 
the  working-plan  document  is  comparatively  um'mportant. 
It  may  be  tj-pewritten  or  not,  bound  or  unbound.  If  type- 
written it  can  be  manifolded  more  easily;  if  plainly  bound  it 
resists  handling  better,  and  the  working-plan  document  is  meant 
to  be  used  constantly,  not  put  away  on  a  library  shelf  for  the 
admiration  of  visitors.  To  facilitate  this  use  a  two-inch  margin 
should  be  left  at  the  side  of  the  text  throughout  the  document, 
excepting  tables,  for  the  purpose  of  allowing  notes  to  be  made 
from  time  to  time  by  officers  charged  with  the  execution  of  the 
plan.  This  simple  de\ace  keeps  a  plan  alive  and  up  to  date  and 
greatly  facilitates  the  work  of  revision  (Section  4). 

The  field  work  in  connection  with  forest  organization  often 
results  in  the  collection  of  many  interesting  and  valuable  silvi- 
cal  and  other  data  which,  while  germane  to  the  working  plan, 
are  not  a  cognate  part  thereof.  Such  data,  including  volume, 
growth,  and  yield  tables,  silvical  notes,  notes  on  climate,  geology, 
soil,  etc.,  should  be  placed  in  the  appendix  or  elsewhere  con- 
venient, in  order  that  everything  in  the  plan  may  be  confined 


THE  THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  WORKING  PLANS  115 

to  the  actual  scheme  of  management  for  the  forest.     These  as 
already  stated  are: 

1.  Orientation. 

2.  Foundation, 

3.  Recommendation  (silvicultural  treatment). 

4.  Regulation. 

The  first  three  of  these  were  largely  covered  in  Chapter  I, 
the  last  in  Chapter  II.  It  is,  therefore,  only  necessary  here  to 
consider  them  from  the  documentary  standpoint. 

I.  Orientation 

(a)  Location  and  Size. — The  briefest  mention  suffices. 

(b)  History  of  Forest  with  Important  Changes. — Past  and 
present  ownership  and  administration,  boundaries,  past  object 
of  management,  past  revenues  and  expenditures. 

(c)  Salient  Physiographic,  Social,  and  Industrial  Features. — 
The  physiographic  features  include  topography,  drainage, 
geology,  soils,  and  cHmate.  Detailed  observations  and  statistics 
should  be  reserved  for  the  appendix,  and  only  the  sahent  char- 
acteristics which  influence  the  forest  organization  stated  briefly. 

The  social  and  industrial  features  include  population,  labor 
supply,  local  industries  such  as  lumbering,  grazing,  mining, 
agriculture,  etc.,  ah  in  their  bearing  on  the  problems  of  forest 
organization.  For  it  is  evident  that  without  adequate  labor  no 
forest  resources  can  be  developed,  without  lumbering  facihties 
no  regulation  of  the  cut  can  be  maintained  or  executed,  and  the 
very  term  "accessible  "  is  modified  by  the  degree  of  skill  exercised 
in  logging  and  the  kinds  of  appliances  used  to  get  the  timber. 
Again,  the  need  of  the  local  population  for  timber  is  the  root 
of  the  theory  of  sustained  yield.  These  fundamental  phases 
require  no  detailed  discussion,  but  brief  statements  of  condi- 
tions in  explanation  of  the  plan  proper. 

(d)  Time,  Method,  and  Personnel  of  Reconnaissance  and 
Organization. — These  statements  should  be  exceedingly  brief — 


116  THE    THEORY    AND   PRACTICE    OF   WORKING   PLANS 

a  tabular  form  is  advisable  for  time  and  personnel,  since  they 
are  of  purely  historical  interest.  The  method  used  should, 
however,  be  set  forth  in  sulTicient  detail  so  that  there  can  be 
no  question  as  to  how  much  weight  attaches  to  the  accuracy  of 
maps  and  estimates. 

(e)  Digest  of  Working-Plan  Conference. — If  a  conference 
was  had  between  the  forest  organizer  and  the  owner  or  admin- 
istrator of  the  forest,  as  suggested  in  Chapter  I,  Section  i,  this 
should  be  digested  and  added  to  the  working-plan  document 
with  the  names  of  the  participants. 

2.  Foundation 

(a)  Growing  Stock  (Estimates;. — The  estimates  should  be 
in  form  of  a  table  by  species  and  classes  of  timber,  either  separate 
or  as  part  of  the  general  stand  table.  The  details  of  this  esti- 
mate table  depend  on  the  intensity  of  the  entire  plan.  It  will 
usually  suflice  to  give  the  totals  by  compartments  (if  any) 
and  blocks,  or  else  by  survey  units  such  as  sections,  or  even 
townships.  The  estimate  for  the  entire  working  figure  must 
always  be  given.  It  must  also  be  stated  to  what  minimum 
diameter  trees  were  estimated  and,  if  available,  what  average 
deduction  must  be  made  for  defect.  Estimates  in  greater 
detail,  e.g.,  section  sheets  showing  the  stand  on  each  "forty," 
should  be  reserved  for  the  appendi.x  (see  Chapter  I,  Sec- 
tion 2). 

(b)  Increment. — The  increment,  either  current  or  mean 
annual,  or  else  both,  is  given,  and  is  expressed  either  in  incre- 
ment per  acre  or  as  a  per  cent  (Chapter  I,  Section  i).  Growth 
and  yield  tables  on  which  the  calculation  of  increment  may  be 
based  should  be  included  in  the  appendix. 

(c)  Distribution  of  the  Age  Classes.— If  the  stand  is  even- 
aged  or  approximately  so,  a  table  of  age-class  distribution,  like 
the  example  given  in  Chapter  I,  Section  2,  should  be  included. 
Not  only  docs  such  a  table  show  at  a  glance  the  relation  of  young, 
mature,  and  overmature  timber,  but,  in  the  revisions  of  the 


THE   THEORY   AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING  PLANS  117 

working  plan,  it  shows  by  means  of  graphic  curves  or  blocks 
(Chapter  I,  Section  i)  what  progress  has  been  made  toward  the 
attainment  of  normahty  in  this  direction  (see  Section  4). 

(d)  General  Stand  Table. — A  table  approximating,  as  far 
as  possible,  the  example  in  Chapter  I,  Section  2,  should  be 
included  as  a  convenient  tabular  summary  of  areas,  volumes, 
and  conditions  of  timber. 

(e)  Maps  can  be  elaborated  to  almost  any  extent  according 
to  the  kind  and  importance  of  the  data  to  be  shown  thereon. 
The  following  are  the  most  important: 

(i)  A  topographic  map  showing  topography  in  contours, 
seldom  hachures;  roads,  trails,  railroads,  saw-mills,  and  all  other 
"culture";  drainage.  This  map  is  the  "base"  and  should  be 
of  a  convenient  scale,  such  as  J^,  i,  2,  4,  or  even  more  inches 
to  the  mile,  depending  on  the  size  of  the  tract  and  the  amount 
of  detail  to  be  shown.  It  should  be  drawn  so  as  to  permit  of 
being  manifolded  in  order  that  all  officers  charged  with  the 
administration  of  the  forest  and  the  execution  of  the  working 
plan  may  be  furnished  with  copies.  On  this  "  base  "  can  be  added 
any  or  all  of  the  following  special  data  in  so  far  as  the  wealth 
of  detail  will  not  confuse  the  whole. 

(2)  Boundary  map  showing  the  ownership  (status),  the 
forest  boundary  or  boundaries;  survey  lines,  if  any;  boundary 
or  boundaries  of  the  working  figures,  blocks,  compartments,  and 
subcompartments  (stands)  (see  Chapter  I,  Section  2). 

(3)  Forest-type  map,  showing  the  various  forest  types  (Chap- 
ter I,  Section  2),  also  cut-over  areas,  burns,  open  "parks,"  etc. 

(4)  Age-class  map,  showing  the  distribution  of  the  various 
age  classes. 

(5)  Site-quality  map,  showing  the  distribution  of  the  various 
site  qualities. 

(6)  Soil  map,  showing  the  various  soils  and  geologic  forma- 
tions of  the  forest. 

(7)  Reproduction  map,  showing  areas  of  good,  fair,  and  poor 
reproduction  (Chapter  I,  Section  2). 

(8)  Cutting  map,  to  accompany  the  general  cutting  plan, 


lis  THE    THEORY    AND    PRACTICE    OF    WORKING    PLANS 

showing  areas  to  be  cut  over  within  the  next  working  period 
(Chapter  II.  Section  2). 

(9)  Planting  map.  to  accompan\-  the  general  planting  plan, 
showing  areas  to  be  restocked  artificially  during  the  next 
working  period  (Chapter  III.  Section  3),  and  areas  already 
planted  or  sown,  all  nurseries  and  j)roposed  nursery  sites. 

If  the  plan  is  to  be  a  complete  forest  plan,  and  not  confined 
to  the  siKicultural  management,  there  may  be  the  following 
additional  maps: 

(10)  Fire  map,  to  accompany  the  fire  plan  (see  Introduc- 
tion), showing  all  lookout  points,  watch  towers,  lines  of  patrol, 
ranger  headquarters,  fire-guard  stations,  location  of  fire-fighting 
tools,  and  places  whence  assistance  in  fighting  fire  may  be 
obtained.    The  base  should  be  maps  i  and  3  combined. 

(11)  PerTuanent  improvement  map,  to  accompany  the  per- 
manent improvement  plan  (see  Introduction)  showing  all 
improvements,  existing  or  proposed,  such  as  ranger  stations, 
fire  cabins,  telephone  lines,  etc. 

(12)  Grazing  map,  to  accompany  the  grazing  plan  (see  Intro- 
duction), showing  the  grazing  types,  condition  of  the  range, 
the  portions  grazed  (and  by  what  class  of  stock)  or  ungrazed, 
the  winter,  summer,  or  yearlong  range,  corrals,  pastures,  drift 
fences,  water  tanks,  etc. 

Lest  too  many  data  be  placed  on  one  map.  it  is  better  to 
have  separate  maps  than  to  combine  too  much  and  cause  con- 
fusion. For  ordinary  purposes,  however,  the  following  maps 
may  well  be  combined: 

Nos.  I,  2,  3,  and  4.  Topography,  boundaries,  types,  age- 
classes.* 

Nos.  I,  2,  3,  7,  and  8.  Topography,  boundaries,  types,  repro- 
duction, cutting. 

Nos.  I,  2,  3,  and  9.    Topography,  boundaries,  types,  planting. 

Various  methods  of  regulating  the  yield  (Chapter  II.  Sec- 
tion i)  require  special  data  on  the  map.  e.g.,  if  the  regulation  is 

*  If  evcn-agcd  or  approximately  so. 


THE    THEORY   AND   PR.\CTICE    OF  WORKING  PLANS  119 

to  be  by  area  reduced  according  to  site  classes  (method  No.  i, 
variation  II;  method  No.  14,  variation  II;  method  No.  16, 
variation  II,  also  method  No.  17,  Nos.  I  and  III),  then  a  site- 
class  map  (No.  5)  is  necessary. 

Detailed  maps  of  survey  units  or  of  small  areas  which  it  is 
desired  to  show  in  greater  detail  should  be  placed  in  the  appendix, 
as  should  also  special  maps  showing  areas  of  insect  or  fungus 
attacks,  etc. 

f.  Forest  Description. — Must  be  concise  and  free  from 
burdensome  details.  These  had  better  be  placed  in  the  appendix. 
The  forest  description  of  the  entire  working  figure  should  be  a 
careful  summary  of  the  descriptions  for  each  block*  (see  Chap- 
ter I,  Section  2).  The  aim  is  to  present  a  lucid  picture  of  the 
forest  as  it  is  in  the  essential  silvical  factors  bearing  on  the  plan 
of  management  adopted.  The  description  must  be  ample 
reason  for  the  provisions  of  the  working  plan.  The  description 
is  the  premise;  the  recommended  management  the  logical 
deduction  from  that  premise. 

g.  Division  of  Area. — On  thebasisof  the  forest  description,  the 
division  of  area  should  be  so  evidently  logical  as  to  require  very 
little  special  justification.  However,  it  is  well  to  explain  briefly 
what  considerations  governed  in  the  choice  of  working  figure, 
block,  compartment,  and  subcompartment  (Chapter  I,  Section 
2),  in  so  far  as  this  was  not  already  covered  in  the  digest  of  the 
working-plan  conference.  Since  the  working  figure  is  the  unit 
of  sustained  yield,  its  adequacy  from  this  viewpoint  should  be 
considered  along  the  broad  lines  laid  down  in  Chapter  I,  Sec- 
tion 3. 

3.  Recommendation 

The  recommended  management  should  be  the  logical  se- 
quence of  the  data  given  under  "Orientation"  and  "Founda- 

*  These,  together  with  the  estimate  and  map  sheets  of  the  survey  unit 
(see  "Reconnaissance,"  Chapter  I,  Section  2),  should  be  placed  in  the  appendix 
or  else  filed  conveniently  for  future  reference. 


120  THE    THEORY    AN^D    PRACTICE    OF    WORKING    PLANS 

tion."  The  basic  considerations  of  silvicultural  method  of 
management,  object  of  management,  and  rotation  are  contained 
in  Chapter  I,  Section  3.  This  part  of  the  working-plan  document 
should  review  the  governing  conditions  wiiich  determine  the 
recommended  management.    These  are: 

(a)  Object  of  Management — i.e.,  the  wishes  and  purpose 
of  the  owner  (in  so  far  as  not  already  contained  in  the  digest  of 
the  working-plan  conference). 

(b)  Practical  Restrictions  of  market,  logging  accessibility, 
fire  danger,  erosion  danger,  etc. 

(c)  Silvicultural  Method  of  Management  which  can  best 
fulfil  the  object  of  managenicnt  witli  iIk-  given  silvical  condi- 
tions and  under  the  practical  restrictions  imposed.  Past  manage- 
ment and  its  mistakes  and  lessons  should  be  reviewed  and  the 
proposed  method  of  management  given  in  detail.  The  best 
silviculture  is  not  always  possible  under  existing  conditions, 
and  the  organizer  must  seek  to  combine  the  three  divergent 
factors  of  object  of  management,  practical  restrictions,  and 
silvical  requirements  into  a  harmonious  scheme  of  management. 
This  should  cover: 

(i)  Silvicultural  system  lor  each  type  \Chapter  I,  Section  3) 
with  brief  description  thereof. 

(2)  Rotation  (Chapter  I,  Section  3)  chosen,  with  reasons  for 
its  adoption.  The  period  of  regeneration,  cutting  cycles,  etc., 
should  be  given  and  made  entirely  clear. 

(3)  Marking  rules  to  be  followed  in  the  execution  of  the 
cuttings  for  natural  regeneration.  They  should  be  clear  and 
concise,  simply  put  so  as  to  be  readily  intelligible  to  the  non- 
technical man  charged  with  their  execution,  sufliciently  elastic 
to  cover  all  cases.  Good  marking  rules  will  do  much  towards 
insuring  the  actual  execution  of  the  silvicultural  system  decided 
upon,  especially  when  backed  by  sample  areas  marked  b\'  the 
forest  organizer  as  a  concrete  illustration. 

(4)  Brush  disposal  rules  are  a  necessary  concomitant  of  the 
marking  rules.  Here  too  actual  examples  of  what  is  desired 
should  reinforce  the  written  rules. 


the  theory  and  practice  of  working  plans        121 

4.  Regulation 

As  the  recommended  management  (3)  is  the  logical  out- 
growth of  the  data  given  under  Orientation  (i)  and  Foundation 
(2),  so  the  regulation  of  the  yield  itself  is  but  the  carrying  out  of 
the  Recommendations  (3). 

The  chief  phases  of  yield  regulation  are: 

(a)  Yield  Determination  by  one  or  more  of  the  methods 
described  in  Chapter  II,  Section  i. 

(b)  Yield  Distribution. — Selection  of  stands  to  be  cut,  forma- 
tion of  cutting  series,  etc.,  with  concise  reason  for  the  choice, 
in  accordance  with  the  principles  given  in  Chapter  II,  Section  2. 
Cutting  policy  in  so  far  as  not  covered  already  in  the  digest  of 
the  working-plan  conference. 

(c)  General  Cutting  Plan  for  the  next  working  period  accord- 
ing to  the  example  in  Chapter  II,  Section  2.  It  should  contain 
in  addition  recommendations  in  regard  to  stumpage  rates, 
methods  of  logging,  rules  of  cutting  to  prevent  waste,  and  other 
features  of  practical  utilization  such  as  probable  purchasers, 
uses  and  markets,  etc.  An  annual  cutting  plan  for  the  ensuing 
year  is  usually  drawn  up  by  the  administrative  officer  in  charge 
of  the  forest,  and  does  not  as  a  rule  form  a  part  of  the  working- 
plan  document  (Chapter  II,  Section  2). 

(d)  General  Planting  Plan  for  the  next  working  period 
according  to  the  example  given  below  in  Section  3.  A  descrip- 
tion of  the  methods  and  cost  of  nursery,  planting,  and  seeding 
practice  to  be  employed.  An  annual  planting  plan  for  the 
ensuing  }-ear  is  usually  drawn  up  by  the  administrative  officer 
in  charge  of  the  forest,  and  does  not,  as  a  rule,  form  a  part  of 
the  working-plan  document  (Chapter  III,  Section  3). 


122  THE   THEORY  AND  PR.\CTICE   OF  WORKING  PLANS 

SECTION    TWO 

OUTLINES   FOR   WORKING   PLAN 

Three  typical  outlines  for  working-plan  documents  will  be 
given.  A.  The  Prussian  outline,  typical  of  forest  organization 
in  countries  based  on  forest-rent.*  B.  The  Saxon  outline, 
typical  of  forest  organization  in  countries  based  on  soil-rent,* 
and,  C,  an  outline  tN-pical  for  the  average  extensive  conditions 
e.xisting  in  America.  This  last  includes  all  the  phases  of  a  com- 
plete forest  plan. 

A.  Prussian  Outline 

Introduction.  Working  period  (two  decades).  Revision 
(every  decade).    Name  of  forest  organizer  and  assistants. 

1.  Letter  of  minister  (secretary)  putting  plan  into  effect. 

2.  Plan  of  management. 

Digest  of  working-plan  conference. 
Introduction.     Time  and  scope  of  work. 
General  position  and  history  of  the  forest. 
The  measurements. 

a.  Maps. 

(i)  Special  maps  (large  scale). 

(2)  Location  map  (small  scale). 

(3)  Map  of  servitudes  (prescriptive  rights). 

b.  Record  of  measurements. 

(4)  Boundaries. 

(5)  Table  of  measurements  (surs'cy  notes). 

(6)  Record  of  changes  in  area. 

(7)  Record  of  changes  in  servitude 
Division  of  area. 

(8)  Ranger  districts  and  blocks 

(9)  Compartments. 
(10)  Subcompartments. 

*  Sec  Part  Two,  Chapter  I,  for  details.  .-X I  so  Scries  ".American  Asixrcts 
of  European  Forestry"  in  "F.  Q.,"  Vol.  XI. 


THE  THEORY  AND  PIL\CTICE  OF  WORKING  PLANS  123 


Condition  of  stand. 

(ii)  Site. 

(a)  Exposure. 

(b)  Soil. 

(12)  Stand, 

(a)   Species. 

(b)  Relation  of  the  age  classes. 

(13)  Injuries. 

(a)   Fire. 

(b)  Storm  (wind). 

(c)   Frost. 

(d)  Drought. 

(e)   Fungus. 

(f)    Insects. 

(14)  Market  conditions. 

(15)  Labor  conditions. 

(16)  Servitudes. 

Regulation  of  yield  and  plan  of  management. 

(17)  Former  management. 

(18)  Basis  of  present  regulation  of  yield. 

(a)  Rotation. 

(b)  Plan  of  yield. 

(c)   Calculation  of  yield. 

(19)  Method  of  cutting. 

(20)  Method  of  regeneration. 

Miscellaneous. 

(21)  Financial  yield. 

(22)  By-products. 

(23)  Hunting  and  fishing. 

(24)  Forest  protection  and  policing. 

(25)  Fiscal  matters. 

(26)  Communal  relations,  i.e.,  with  communal-owned  for- 

ests. 

(27)  Other  matters  of  interest. 

3.  Boundary  register  (status). 

4.  General  stand  tables. 

124  TlIE   THEORY   AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING   PLANS 

5.  Area  tabk-s. 

6.  Table  of  servitudes. 

7.  Plan  of  thinnings. 

8.  Resume  of  communal  conditions. 

B.  Sa.xon  Outline 

Part   One.      Introduction.     Working  period    Cone   decade). 
Rexision  (every  five  years). 

General  stand  tables  (areas  and  volumes). 
Site-quality*  table  and  comparison  of  increments. 
Comparison  of  age  classes  and  volume   (growing  stock). 

Table  of  age-class  distribution  in  per  cents  and  area.f 
Stand-quality  table. J 
Results  of  past  management. 
(i)  Final  cuttings. 

(2)  Intermediate  cuttings. 

(3)  Total  yield. 

(4)  Yield  by  cutting  areas. 

(5)  Money  yield  from  cuttings. 

(6)  Plantations,  also  care  of  plantations  and  of  the  stand. 

(7)  Road  and  trail  building. 

(8)  Summary  of  net  soil  rent  (Reinertrag). 
Yield  determination. 

General  rules  of  management. 
Part  Two.     General  cutting  plan. 
Part  Three.     General  planting  plan. 

C.  American  Outline  (suggested) 

I,  Orientation. 

a.  Location  and  size  of  forest  (working  figure). 

b.  History  of  forest  with  important  changes. 
(i)  Past  and  present  ownership  (status). 

*  "Standorts  bonitSt." 

t  Diagrammatically  by  means  of  blocks.    Sec  Chapter  I,  Section  r. 

X  "Bcstands  bonitiit." 


THE   THEORY  AND   PR.A.CTICE   OF   WORKING  PLANS  125 

(2)  Boundaries.     Interior  surveys. 

(3)  Past  object  of  management  and  general  administra- 

tion. 

(4)  Past  revenues  and  expenditures.  . 

c.  Physiographic  features, 
(i)  Topography. 

(2)  Drainage. 

(3)  Geology  (formation). 

(4)  Soils  (depth,  fertility,  etc.). 

(5)  Climate   (maximum,  minimum,   and  average  tem- 

perature, rainfall,  prevailing  wind  direction). 

d.  Social  and  industrial  features. 

(i)  Population.     Dependence  on  forest  for  work  and 
fuel  and  timber  supply. 

(2)  Labor  supply. 

(3)  Local  conditions — lumbering,  grazing,  mining,  agri- 

culture, etc.    Interrelation  with  forest. 

e.  Digest  of  working-plan  conference. 

f.  Time,  method,  and  personnel  of    field  work.     Cost,  if 

desired. 
Foundation. 

a.  Growing  stock  (estimates).     Tabulation. 

b.  Increment  per  acre  or  per  cent. 

c.  Distribution  of  the  age  classes.     Tabulation. 

d.  General  stand  table.     Tabulation. 

e.  Forest  description. 

g.  Division  of  area.    Working  figure,  block,  compartment, 

subcompartment  (stand). 
Recommendation. 

a.  Object  of  management.    Production  of  cord-wood,  saw- 

timber,  turpentine,  etc. 

b.  Wishes  and  purpose  of  the  owner  (poHcy  if  national  or 

State  forest). 

c.  Practical    restrictions.      ^Market,    logging    accessibility, 

special  danger  from  fire,  erosion,  avalanches,  etc. 

d.  Method  of  management. 


120  THE   THEORY  AND  PIL\CTICE   OF  WORKING   PLANS 

(i)  Silvicultural    system    or    systems,    their    proposed 
application. 

(2)  Rotation  (period  of  regeneration,  cutting  cycle,  etc.). 

(3)  Marking  rules. 

(4)  Rules  for  brush  disposal. 

4.  Regulation. 

a.  Determination  of  yield. 

b.  Distribution  of  yield.     Formation  of  cutting  series,  etc. 

c.  General  cutting  plan  for  working  period. 

d.  General  planting  plan  for  working  period. 

5.  Administrative  plan. 

a.  Scheme  of  field  administration. 

(i)  Administrative  districts  and  area. 

(2)  Field  and  office  force,  yearlong  and  temporary. 

6.  Grazing  plan. 

a.  Description  of  forage  types  and  condition  of  range. 

b.  Protection  and  development  of  range. 

(i)  Range  improvements.     Watering  facilities. 

(2)  Treatment  of  overgrazed  and  partly  stocked  areas. 

(3)  Measures  for  fuller  use  of  range. 

(4)  Control  and  eradication  of  poisonous  plants. 

(5)  Control   and  extermination  of  predatory   animals, 

prairie  dogs,  and  other  pests. 

c.  Grazing  control.     Capacity  of  range.     Grazing  districts 

and  allotments. 

7.  Permanent-improvement  plan. 

a.  General. 

b.  Telephone. 

c.  Look-out  towers. 

d.  Fire  cabins  and  tool-boxes. 

e.  Roads  and  trails. 

f.  Ranger  stations. 

8.  Forest- protection  plan. 

a.  Fire  control. 

(i)  Nature  of  lire  problem. 

(2)  Past  fires.    Bearing  on  the  plan. 


THE  THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  WORKING  PLANS  127 

(3)  Hazards.    Danger  zones,  extra  fire  risks,  necessity  of 

special  measures. 

(4)  Cooperation.    Desirable  and  proposed  cooperation. 

(5)  Scheme  of  protection. 

(a)  Primary  control  by  look-outs. 

(b)  Secondary  control  by  patrol  and  actual  combat. 

(6)  Organization.    Look-outs  and  patrolmen.    Action  in 

case  of  fire. 

(7)  Mobilization. 

(a)  Fire-fighters,  regular  and  volunteer,  available. 

(b)  Transportation.    Logging  railroads,  pack  trains, 

teams,  etc. 

(c)  Tools,  equipment,  and  suppHes.     Location  of 

tool-boxes.    Bases  of  supplies. 

(8)  Improvements.    Additional  headquarters,  telephone 

lines,  trails,  etc.,  required. 

b.  Insect   control )  and  other  special  problems  warranting 

c.  Fungus  controU  inclusion. 
Uses  of  forest  land. 

a.  Settlement. 

(i)  Classification  of  lands,  whether  of  relatively  greater 
value  for  agriculture  or  for  forest  purposes. 

(2)  Sale  prices  of  land.    Comparative  land  values. 

(3)  Cost  of  clearing  land  for  agriculture  and  probable 

profits  of  agriculture  thereon. 

b.  Special  uses. 

c.  Water-power  sites.     Present   and  future  development. 

Stream  measurements. 
.  Appendix  (observations  not  properly  a  part  of  the  main 
working  plan) . 

a.  General  data — geology,  soils,  cHmate,  occurrence  and 

protection  of  fish  and  game. 

b.  Silvical  data. 

(i)  Volume,  growth,  and  yield  tables. 

(2)  List  of  component  species. 

(3)  Silvical  characteristics  of  component  species. 


128  THE   THEORY   AXD   PR.\CTICE   OF   WORKING   PLANS 

(a)  Soil  and  moisture  requirements. 

(b)  Influence  of  elevation  and  aspect 

(c)  Tolerance. 

(d)  Reproduction. 

(e)  Injuries:     fire,    storm,    frost,    drought,    fungus, 

insects,  etc. 
c.  Detailed   estimates,   maps,   and   forest   descriptions   of 
sur\'ey  units  or  other  units,  unless  filed  elsewhere  for 
greater  convenience. 
II.  Maps. 


^[-:c HON    iiiki:i-: 
THE   PLAXTIXC;    PL.\X 


This  is  properly  an  integral  part  of  every  working  plan, 
but  in  order  to  avoid  confusion,  and  not  to  encumber  the  subject 
of  timber  regulation,  detailed  mention  has  been  reserved  for 
this  section. 

Some  planting  operations  are  necessary  in  every  well-regulated 
forest,  whether  it  be  to  eke  out  a  too  scanty  natural  regeneration 
or  to  restock  former  forest  areas  where  natural  regeneration  is 
out  of  the  question. 

Just  as  a  general  cutting  plan  is  drawn  up  for  the  intended 
cuttings  in  the  ensuing  working  period  (Chapter  II.  Section  2), 
so  a  general  {planting  plan  is  drawn  up  to  cover  all  the  operations 
of  artificial  regeneration  which  are  contemplated  during  the 
ensuing  working  period.  From  out  this  general  planting  plan 
the  administraj:ive  officer  in  charge  of  the  forest  selects  those 
areas  whose  restocking  he  deems  of  the  most  immediate  im- 
portance and  incorporates  them  into  an  annual  planting  plan 
which,  with  the  approval  of  his  superior  otlicers.  becomes  the 
j)lanting  schedule  for  the  ensuing  year. 

As  a  preamble  to  the  general  planting  plan  should  come  a 
general  discussion  of  the  areas  needing  artificial  regeneration, 
the  extent  to  which  it  is  expedient  to  go  in  replanting  com- 


THE   THEORY  AND   PR.A.CTICE   OF   WORKING  PLANS  129 

mensurate  with  the  results  to  be  obtained,  and  other  phases  of  the 
poHcy  to  be  pursued  in  the  choice  of  areas.  In  general,  it  is 
advisable  to  restock  first  those  areas  on  which  success  seems 
most  assured,  leaving  for  the  future  with  its  greater  experience 
and  presumably  greater  capital  those  areas  where  immediate 
success  is  less  certain.  For  most  administrations  profit  by 
making  a  good  initial  "showing"  and  once  the  way  is  paved 
the  more  difficult  operations  can  be  undertaken  even  though 
they  fail  to  make  so  good  a  "showing."  Other  things  being 
equal,  the  money  return  from  a  planting  is  surer,  larger,  and 
sooner  the  easier  the  site  and  the  quicker  the  success  of  the 
operation. 

This  should  be  followed  by  a  full  discussion  of  the  methods 
of  regeneration  to  be  employed.  First  the  results  of  past  plant- 
ings and  sowing,  accentuating  the  reasons  for  failure  or  success, 
and  then  the  policy  for  future  planting  and  sowing.  The  source 
of  plant  material — seeds,  seedlings,  and  transplants  should  be 
considered;  the  seed  should  be  shown  to  be  from  reHable  and 
appropriate  sources  (sources  suitable  to  the  climatic  and  site 
conditions),  and  the  planting  stock  preferably  grown  in  nurseries 
on  the  forest  or  else  secured  from  outside  nurseries  whose  site 
corresponds  approximately  to  that  of  the  intended  planting  site. 
If  there  are  to  be  nurseries  on  the  forest,  the  preamble  of  the 
general  planting  plan  gives  full  provisions  for  their  location, 
creation,  and  maintenance,  and  should  contain  the  area  thereof 
in  seed-beds  and  their  capacity,  the  area  thereof  in  transplant 
beds  and  their  capacity,  and  the  proposed  annual  production 
by  species  and  classes  of  stock. 

The  area  which  it  is  intended  to  plant  or  sow  during  the 
coming  working  period  should  be  indicated  on  the  working  map 
of  the  forest  either  by  color,  or  shading,  or  symbols. 

The  annual  planting  plan  may  conveniently  take  the  forms 
on  pages  130  and  131,  a  separate  head  being  used  for  plant- 
ings and  sowings. 

The  general  planting  plan  may  conveniently  take  the  form 
shown  on  page  132. 


130 


THE   THEORY  AND  PR^VCTICE   OF   WORKING   PLANS 


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THE   THEORY  AND  PRACTICE   OF  WORKING  PLANS  133 

SECTION   FOUR 

CONTROL  AND  REVISION  OF  WORKING  PLAN 

No  working  plan  can  remain  alive  and  useful  unless  it  is 
revised  at  frequent,  regular  intervals.  These  revisions  incor- 
porate all  the  changes  which  have  taken  place  during  the  working 
period. 

Since  the  working  period  is  usually  ten  years,  the  working- 
plan  document  is  usually  revised  every  decade.  But  under  very 
intensive  conditions  more  frequent  revision  may  be  justified, 
even  to  the  extent  of  every  five  years  (see  Example  of  Saxony, 
Part  Two,  Chapter  I).  On  the  other  hand,  a  plan  should  not, 
ordinarily,  go  without  revision  for  more  than  a  decade,  or  per- 
haps twelve  years,  even  though  the  working  period  be  longer, 
e.g.,  two  decades,  or  even  four,  as  in  Prussia  and  Austria,  respect- 
ively (see  Part  Two,  Chapter  I). 

EspeciaUy  under  the  kaleidoscopically  changing  conditions 
in  most  parts  of  America  is  it  desirable  to  have  frequent  revisions 
so  that  the  working  plan  may  really  "work"  and  not  become 
obsolete  within  the  working  period.  Special  revisions  before  the 
end  of  the  working  period  are,  of  course,  necessitated  whenever, 
through  storm,  purchase,  or  the  like,  a  substantial  change  is 
caused  in  the  size,  character,  or  composition  of  the  forest. 

The  record  of  the  progress  of  the  forest  under  the  working 
plan  is  called  the  control  book.  This  book  is  conveniently  in 
two  parts:  I,  the  cutting  and  planting  record;  II,  the  general 
or  "history"  book.  The  former  may  conveniently  take  the 
following  form    (page  134). 

It  is  obvious  that  this  part  I  of  the  control  book  is  built  up 
from  the  annual  cutting  and  planting  plans.  It  embodies  their 
essentials  in  convenient  form  as  a  permanent  record.  It  can,  of 
course,  be  extended  to  cover  all  the  activities  of  the  forest  besides 
"timber,"  e.g.,  grazing.  A  column  for  areas  can  also  be  added 
between  columns  3  and  4  if  desired. 


134 


THE   THEORY   AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING  PLANS 


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THE   THEORY   AND   PRACTICE    OF   WORKING  PLANS  135 

A  separate  page  is  kept  for  each  convenient  unit — be  it  block 
or  compartment,  township  or  section,  depending  on  the  needs  of 
the  administration. 

All  areas  cut  or  planted  are  to  be  entered  on  the  map  of  the 
forest. 

Part  Two,  the  "history"  book,  contains  convenient  headings 
for  a  general  record  of  the  various  forest  activities.    Such  are: 

1.  Reconnaissance  and  boundaries:  a  running  record  of  the 
reconnaissance  done  and  proposed,  be  it  for  timber,  grazing,  or 
what  not,  and  of  the  changes  in  boundaries  and  the  demarcation 
in  the  field  of  the  boundaries. 

2.  Methods  of  cutting  and  planting:  a  running  record  of 
silvical  observations  in  natural  and  artificial  regeneration. 

3.  Forest  protection:  a  running  record  of  all  important  forest 
menaces;  the  method  and  success  of  the  combat  with  them. 
Such  are: 

(a)  Fire. 

(b)  Storm. 

(c)  Frost. 

(d)  Drought. 

(e)  Fungi. 

(f)  Insects,  etc. 

Chapters  can  be  added  at  will  for  the  other  forest  activities 
covered  in  a  forest  plan  (see  Section  2),  such  as: 

4.  Administration. 

5.  Grazing. 

6.  Permanent  improvements. 

7.  Uses  of  forest  land. 

8.  Utilization  of  forest  products. 

(a)  Methods  of  logging. 

(b)  Methods  of  saw-milling. 

(c)  Markets  and  prices  of  stumpage  and  lumber. 

(d)  Utilization  of  by-products. 

(e)  Impregnation   of    wood    (wood    preservation),    etc., 

ad  lib. 
Q.  Game  and  the  chase. 


130  THE  THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  WORKING   PLANS 

10.  Money  returns  of  management. 

(a)  Gross  income  and  expense. 

(b)  Net  income. 

11.  Personnel  relations. 

12.  Miscellaneous  data. 

Such  a  control  book,  together  with  the  summarized  annual 
cutting  and  planting  plans,  corrected  maps,  and  the  marginal 
notes  and  corrections  in  the  plan  itself,  forms  a  perfectly  adequate 
basis  for  undertaking  the  periodic  revision. 

The  thoroughness  of  the  revision  depends  on  the  correctness 
of  the  original  plan.  Only  rarely  should  it  be  necessary  to 
rewrite  the  entire  plan.  Those  portions  which  come  under 
"Orientation."  such  as  physiographic  features,  social  and  indus- 
trial features,  and  under  "Foundation,"  such  as  forest  descrip- 
tion, division  of  area,  etc.,  can  either  be  incorporated  directly 
in  the  new  working  plan,  or  else  reference  made  to  the  original 
working  plan  covering  these  portions  in  detail. 

In  matters  of  yield  determination  and  distribution  as  em- 
bodied in  the  general  cutting  and  planting  plans,  the  revision 
is  essentially  a  recalculation  and  reallotment. 

The  preliminary  of  every  revision  should  be  a  working-plan 
conference  to  review  the  plan  for  the  working  period  just  passed 
and  to  make  suggestions  for  the  ensuing  period.  The  digest  of 
this  conference  should  be  incorporated  in  the  revised  working 
plan. 

If  the  forest  is  essentially  even-aged,  the  revised  working 
plan  should  contain  under  "Orientation":  "History  of  forest 
with  important  changes,"  a  diagrammatic  presentation  of  the 
distribution  of  the  age  classes,  showing  graphically  the  gradual 
approach  (presumably),  towards  normality  in  this  respect.  This 
may  be  shown  either  by  means  of  a  curve  or  by  means  of  pro- 
portionate blocks  (see  Chaj^tcr  I.  Section  i,  "Distribution  of  tlie 
.\ge  Classes"). 


PART  TWO 
PRACTICE  OF  WORKING  PLANS 


PRACTICE  OF  WORKING  PLANS 


CHAPTER   I 

IN  EUROPE 

SECTIOiN   ONE 

GERMANY 


The  chief  States  of  Germany  from  the  standpoint  of  forestry 
are:  Prussia,  Bavaria,  Saxony,  Wiirttemberg,  Baden,  and 
Alsace-Lorraine.  For  each  of  these  will  be  given,  after  a  sum- 
mary of  the  salient  conditions,  such  as  size  of  country  and  forests, 
topography,  species,  markets,  etc.,  a  brief  review  of  the  history 
of  working  plans,  the  chief  foundations  of  plans,  the  methods 
of  regulating  the  yield,  and  the  prescriptions  for  control  and 
re\-ision  of  the  working  plan.  The  same  scheme  will  be  followed 
for  the  data  about  France  and  Austria  (Sections  2  and  3). 

I.  Prussla. 

Prussia  is  by  far  the  largest  of  the  German  States,  with 
86,118,526  acres,  or  about  65  per  cent,  of  the  total  German 
Empire.  Of  these  86,118,526  acres,  20,427,179  acres,  or  23.72 
per  cent,  are  in  forest. 

Prussia  contains  widely  varying  topography,  from  the  very 

characteristic  plains  of  the  northeast  to  the  lesser  ranges  along 

the  Austrian  frontier  (Riesengebirge)  and  in  the  east- central 

portions  (Harz,  Teutoburger  Wald,  Taunus,  etc.). 

137 


138  TilE  THKORY   AND  PRACTICE   OF   WORKING  PLANS 

If  one  considers  Germany  as  roughly  divided  into  three  main 
forest  regions  by  a  line  from  the  corner  of  Bohemia,  at  Eger. 
northward  through  Hannover  into  Liibcck  on  the  Baltic,  and 
another  line  from  Hannover  westward  to  Amsterdam,  the  large 
northeast  block  may  be  called  the  pine  region,  the  small  north- 
west block  the  heath  region,  and  the  remaining  southwest  block 
the  hardwood-spruce-fir  ^-cgion.  Practically  all  of  the  pine 
region  is  contained  within  Prussia,  and  this  explains  the  pre- 
ponderating percentage  of  Scotch  pine — 60  per  cent  as  against 
12  per  cent  of  spruce  and  fir,  5  per  cent  of  oak,  15  per  cent 
of  beech,  and  4  per  cent  of  birch  and  alder — in  Prussia. 

The  markets  for  Prussian  forest  products  arc  so  excellent 
as  to  admit  of  the  profitable  placing  of  all  classes  of  timber  with 
only  minor  exceptions. 

During  the  nineteenth  century  the  jjcriod  method  of  regulat- 
ing the  yield  ("Fachwerksmethoden."  i.e.,  "Framework  Meth- 
ods"— see  Part  One,  Chaj)ter  H,  Section  3,  Method  Xo.  17)  pre- 
dominated in  Prussia.  At  first,  owing  to  the  influence  of  G.  L. 
Hartig,  it  was  a  strict  volume-period  method  ("  Massenfach- 
werk,"  i.e.,  volume  framework).  The  official  instructions  of  18 19 
provide  a  detailed  allotment  by  volume  and  classes  of  material 
for  each  of  the  six  periods  of  the  120-year  rotation.  The  im- 
practicability of  such  calculations  without  adequate  bases  soon 
brought  a  change  from  Hartig's  strict  method,  the  more  so 
since  such  slow  progress  was  being  made  toward  the  goal  of 
having  working  plans  for  each  forest.  Therefore,  in  1836,  after 
a  provisional  regulation  of  the  yield  had  been  accomplished 
between  1826  and  1835,  a  new  order  for  regulating  the  yield 
was  issued  which  remained  in  force  almost  to  the  end  of  the 
century.  Though  still  based  on  the  volume-framework  method, 
the  calculation  of  yield  was  simplified,  and  the  equality  of  area 
was  also  taken  into  consideration  together  with  a  correct  dis- 
tribution of  the  age  classes  and  the  formation  of  cutting  series. 
With  the  introduction  of  the  factor  of  area,  the  volume-period 
method  (Mas.senfachwerk)  fell  into  abeyance  and  the  combined 
period  method  (Kombinierte  Fachwerk)  came  to  be  used  for  less 


THE  THEORY  AXD  PR.\CTICE  OF  WORKING  PLANS 


139 


regular  stands,  the  straight  area-period  method  (Flachenfach- 
werk)  for  the  more  regular  conditions.* 

Of  late  the  calculation  of  yield  has  been  more  and  more 
coniined  to  the  ensuing  period  (the  I  period),  paying  little  or 
"no  attention  to  the  periods  following  (periods  II,  III,  IV,  V, 
and  VI). 

The  general  stand  table  is  combined  with  the  general  cutting 
plan,  and  takes  the  following  form: 
Column  I  a     Block  and  compartment. 


'     lb 

'              2 

3 
4 
5 
6 

7 

Subcompartment. 

Soil  description. 

Site  quality.    Average  height 

Average  age  and  age  limits. 

Form  of  irdxture  (scattered,  groupwise,  etc.). 

Percentage  of  chief  species  in  mixture. 

Defects  and  diseases. 

'         8     Percentage  of  stocking  (density). 
'         9     Area  of  the  whole  compartment. 
'        lo     Species. 

'       II 

(  over  1 20  years 
/  101-120     " 

'           12 

'       13 

Area  by 

TI       81-100     " 

14 
15 

\       Age 
Classes 

III       61-  80     " 
R'       41-  60     " 

>  area  in  hectares. 

16 

17J 

V       21-  40     " 
VI         I-  20     " 

'        18     Unstocked  blanks 

'        19     Period  in  which  to  be  cut. 

'       20 

Present             ("  Total  in  cu.  mtrs. 

growing              Per  hctr.  in  cu.m. 

stock              I  Increment  per  ct. 

'       21 

'       22 

Stands 
to  be  cut 

'       23 
24 

25 

in  the  I 
period. 

Species 

Volume  at  the  middle  of  the  period  in 

Cutting  area  in  hectares,      [cu.  metres. 

*  For  outline   of   Prussian   working   plan,   see   Part   One,  Chapter   III, 
Section  2. 


140  THE   THEORY   AND   PR.\CTICE   OF  WORKLNG   PLANS 

Column  26     Cutting  area  of  the  II  period  in  hectares. 

"        27     Silvicultural  system  of  cutting. 

"       28     Species  to  be  planted. 

"  29  Area  to  be  planted  (of  that  given  in  columns  iS 
and  25). 

"       30     Remarks  and  necessary  additional  details. 

The  block  and  the  ranger  district  usually  coincide.  Working 
figures  (working  circles.  "Betriebsklassen")  are  segregated  when- 
ever there  are  salient  dilTerences  in  species,  rotation,  or  method 
of  management. 

The  block  is  subdivided  into  rectangular  units  called  *'Jagcn"' 
("hunts"')  in  the  plains,  "Distrikte"  (''districts")  in  the  moun- 
tains. The  boundaries  are  roads  or  topographic  features  (ridges, 
streams,  etc.).  The  average  size  in  pine  stands  is  from  49.4 
to  74.1  acres;  in  spruce  stands,  from  24.7  to  49.4  acres. 

Subcompartments  are  not  segregated  for  minor  '■L'fferences, 
and  never  for  less  than  2.47  acres  (i  hectare). 

To  insure  continuity  of  records  the  numbers  and  boundaries 
of  blocks,  compartments,  etc.,  are  not  changed  except  for  urgent 
reasons. 

The  soil  and  rock  description  is  usually  taken  directly  from 
the  geological  survey  maps. 

The  site  quality  is  usually  gauged  by  means  of  the  yield 
tables  published  by  the  experiment  station.  The  average  height 
is  determined  by  hypsometer  measurements  of  representative 
trees  in  the  main  stand. 

In  uneven-aged  stands  in  which  the  age  classes  blend  one 
into  the  other,  the  age  limits  and  average  age  are  indicated; 
where  the  age  classes  are  widely  divergent  {e.g.,  very  young  and 
mature)  they  are  entered  separately.  Great  weight  attaches 
to  the  age  class  and  area  table.  The  area  is  reduced  according 
to  per  cent  of  stocking,  i.e..  stands  whose  density  is  less  than  .8 
are  reduced  proportionately  in  area.  The  areas  of  each  species, 
in  pure  stands,  are  entered  separately;  this  is  why  column  10 
immediately  precedes  columns  11  to  17. 

The  criterion  of  cutting  the  sustained  yield  is  the  normal 


THE  THEORY  AND  PRACTICE   OF  WORKING  PLANS  141 

area  of  the  period.    This  is  determined  by  the  proportion  of  the 

20 
period  to  the  rotation  which  is  usually  — -  =  |.     An  annual 

sustained  yield  is  not  required,  but,  under  regular  conditions,  the 
periodic  yield  must  be  sustained  even  for  the  individual  blocks; 
under  irregular  conditions  more  than  the  normal  area  can  be  cut 
if  there  is  an  excess  growing  stock,  and  vice  versa.  With  species 
requiring  a  long  period  of  regeneration  (e.g.,  natural  regeneration 
by  shelterwood-selection  method  requires  often  forty  years)  the 
areas  are  allotted  in  detail  for  the  I  and  II  periods,  but  not  the 
volumes. 

The  cutting  Is  virtually  restricted  to  the  stands  indicated 
for  the  I  period.  The  manifest  impossibility  of  selecting  such 
stands  twenty  years  in  advance  and  then  barring  all  the  others 
has  led  to  a  universal  demand  for  the  "Opening  of  the  II 
Period." 

The  choice  of  stands  for  the  I  period,  i.e.,  the  stands  to  be  cut 
during  the  next  twenty  years,  is  prescribed  as  follows:  Mature 
stands  and  defective  stands  are  chosen  first.  Without  undue 
sacrifices  the  object  to  attain  is  the  equalization  of  the  age-class 
distribution  by  smoothing  out  the  age  differences  between  sub- 
compartments  (unless  they  are  extreme),  but  not  by  having  too 
large  adjacent  areas  of  the  same  age  class,  because  of  the  in- 
creased danger  from  fire,  insects,  windbreak,  etc.,  in  coniferous 
stands  especially.  Cutting  series  are,  therefore,  advised  and  so 
many  points  of  attack  that  each  cutting  area  will  have  become 
stocked  with  young,  thrifty  growth  before  the  adjacent  area 
is  cut.    This  usually  means  a  wait  of  twenty  years. 

The  rotation  for  the  chief  species  is  determined  for  all  Prussia, 
hence  only  departures  therefrom  need  detailed  explanation  and 
iustification. 

The  yield  or  allowed  cut  for  the  twenty-year  period  is  the 
growing  stock  on  the  cutting  areas  of  the  I  period  plus  the 
increment  thereon  during  ten  years  (half  the  period).  This 
growing  stock  is  estimated  by  calipering,  either  all  the  trees,  or 
a  certain  per  cent  thereof,  if  conditions  are  sufficiently  uniform. 


142  TIIE   THEORY   ANT)  PRACTICE   OF  WORKING   PLANS 

The  \'olunies  are  then  calculated  from  volume  tables.  The 
volume  of  stands  of  the  }ounger  age  classes  is,  if  sufficiently 
regular,  taken  directly  from  yield  tables,  or  by  means  of  sample 
areas.*  The  increment  per  cent  is  usually  taken  directly  from 
the  yield  tables. 

The  allowed  annual  cut  is  then  found  by  dividing  the  volume 
of  the  entire  I  period  by  twent}'. 

A  separate  cutting  plan  for  thinnings  is  drawn  up.  The  yield 
in  thinnings  is  approximated  from  past  experience.  This  includes 
the  accidental  yield  through  drought  and  windfall. 

The  regulation  of  yield  in  selection  forests  is  purposel}' 
simplified,  since  these  all-aged  stands  are  primarily  intended 
for  protection.  The  division  into  subcompartments  is  usually 
waived;  the  age  classes  are  only  approximated,  and  the  calipering 
of  every  single  stem  is  not  necessary.  The  allowed  cut  for  the 
I  period  is  estimated  for  each  working  figure  according  to  the 
ripeness  for  cutting.  Where  the  selection  forest  is  a  distinct 
unit  of  sufficient  size  {e.g.,  a  block)  the  average  annual  increment 
of  the  whole  is  determined  and  taken  directly  as  the  .diowetl 
annual^  cut  in  so  far  as  there  is  not  a  marked  excess  or  deficiency 
in  the  growing  stock  or  the  condition  of  the  forest  or  other 
cogent  reasons  demand  a  heavier  cutting  or  vice  vcrsii.  Where 
the  selection  forest  has  been  under  regulated  management  for 
some  time  past,  experience  will  dictate  the  approximately  correct 
annual  cut. 

Control  and  revision  of  the  working  plan  are  i)ro\ided  for 

*  The  field-work  is  done  by  younger  members  of  the  Service  (forest 
assessors,  etc.),  sent  out  by  the  Office  of  Forest  Organization  in  Berlin  (where 
also  the  maps  are  made  and  the  nercss;iry  clerical  and  computing  work  doni\ 
but  working  under  the  direction  of  the  supervisor.  It  is  preceded  by  a  working- 
plan  conference  between  the  district  ofticer,  the  supervisor,  and  the  forest 
assessor.  This  b(jdy  is  called  the  Taxations  Commission.  This  conference 
discusses  ways  and  means,  is  digested  and  incorporated  in  the  working-plan 
document  (called  the  "  Abschatzungswerk,"  a  bound  volume  of  some  125  iiagcs, 
manuscript  or  typewritten,  with  amj)le  margins  for  additional  notes).  The 
working  plan  must  be  "submitted  first  to  the  Commission  and  then,  through 
regular  channels,  to  the  Minister  of  .Agriculture,  whose  letter  putting  the 
working  j>lan  into  cfTect  is  incorporated  in  the  bound  volume. 


THE  THEORY  AND  PRACTICE   OF  WORKIXG  PLANS  143 

by  means  of  the  control  book,  the  chief  note-book  (Hauptmerk- 
buch),  and  the  area  register. 

The  control  book  serves  the  double  purpose  of  checking  the 
estimate  and  the  allowed  armual  cut.  For  the  allowed  cut 
must  be  adjusted  according  as  the  estimates  are  shown  to  be 
just  right,  or  too  high,  or  too  low.  If  too  high,  there  will  be 
a  deficit  at  the  end  of  the  period;  if  too  low,  there  will  be  a  sur- 
plus. The  allowed  annual  cut  is  not  strictly  maintained;  sil\i- 
cultural  or  market  conditions  may  necessitate  a  higher  or  lower 
cut.*  Of  course  this  must  be  offset  by  reducing  or  increasing  the 
cut  in  the  years  following. 

Each  cutting  is  entered  in  the  control  book,  Part  A,  where  for 
each  Jagen,  or  District  (compartment),  there  is  a  page  whereon 
to  show  the  time  and  kind  of  cutting,  the  species,  and  the  amount 
obtained  by  classes  of  material. 

When  the  cutting  of  a  stand  is  finished  the  result  is  compared 
with  the  estimate  and  the  difference  entered  in  control  book, 
Part  Ai,  which  is  arranged  as  follows: 

Column  I.  Block. 

"        2.  Compartment. 

"       3.  Subcompartment. 

"       4.  Year  in  which  cutting  is  completed. 

"        5.  Estimate  in  cubic  metres  by  species. 

6.  Actual  cut  in  cubic  metres  by  species — from  con- 

trol book.  Part  A. 

7.  Plus  dift'erence  in  cubic  metres  between  columns 

5  and  6. 
"       8.  Minus  dift'erence  in  cubic  metres  between  columns 
5  and  6. 

At  the  end  of  each  yearf  a  balance  is  struck,  and  the  result 
of  this  comparison  between  the  estimate  and  the  actual  cut  is 

*  An  Oberforster  (super\-isor)  may  not  exceed  the  allowed  annual  cut 
by  more  than  five  per  cent  without  the  consent  of  the  district  ofiice;  over 
ten  per  cent  requires  the  consent  of  the  central  office  in  Berlin. 

t  Formerly  every  three  years. 


144 


THE   THEORY  AND  PRACTICE   OF   WORKING   PLANS 


applied  to  the  allowed  cut  as  inlcrcd  in  control  book.  Part  C,* 
which  is  arranged  as  follows: 


Cut  by  Species,  in  Cubic  Metres 


Allowed 

Actual 

Balanced 


This  balance,  be  it  a  plus  or  a  minus  sum,  is  carried  forward 
and  used  as  the  basis  of  the  cutting  plan  for  the  year  following, 
taking  into  account  the  plus  or  minus  divergence  of  the  estimate. 
At  the  same  time  Part  C  serves  as  a  current  record  of  the  annual 
cuts.  It  is  customary  to  add  brief  marginal  explanations  of  the 
cuts  larger  or  smaller  in  amount  than  the  calculated  yield. 

The  chief  note-book  (Hauptmerkbuch)  is  a  running  history 
of  the  forest  showing  the  occurrences,  management,  measures 
taken,  observations  made,  etc.,  to  form  the  basis  for  a  new 
organization  of  the  forestf  and  as  a  guide  to  new  administrative 
officers  just  taking  charge  of  the  forest.  It  is  divided  in  two 
parts — the  first,  a  general  part,  divided  into  various  headings 
for  the  recording  of  events  connected  with  the  history  of  the 
forest,  observations,  and  also  recommendations,  under  the 
following  headings: 


*  Part  B  has  long  since  been  abandoned. 

t  This  is  sonictinu's  supi)lenicnted  by  a  "Taxatorische  Notizbuch,"  i.e., 
a  note-book  containing  data  cs|)ccially  concerning  the  field-work  and  operation 
of  the  working  plans. 


THE  THEORY  AND  PR.A.CTICE   OF  WORKING  PLANS 


145 


1.  Surveying  and  estimating. 

2.  Methods  and  results  of  cuttings  and  plantings. 

3.  Forest  protection. 

4.  Status  and  servitudes. 

5.  Miscellaneous:  markets,  utilization,  by-products,  the 
chase,  money  returns,  personnel,  etc. 

The  second  part  of  the  chief  note-book  is  specific,  and  con- 
tains a  page  for  each  compartment  whereon  to  record  the  events 
and  changes  affecting  it.    It  is  in  tabular  form,  as  follows: 


Column  I 

Compartment. 

2 

Area. 

3 
4 

■  Cuttings.      j 

Year. 
Area. 

5I 

Year. 

6 

Method  of  planting  or  sowing. 

7 

Species. 

8 
9 

■  Plantings.     ' 

^,                 .  ,        ,    ( Amount  of  seed. 
Plant  material  used.  -  ,  ^           r     i     . 
(  Num.  of  plants. 

10 

Area  restocked. 

II 

Cost  aside  from  cost  of  the  seed. 

12 

Remarks. 

As  a  supplement  to  this,  all  changes  in  boundaries,  soil  utiliza- 
tion, in  the  character  of  the  stands  through  cutting  or  planting, 
new  constructions  such  as  roads,  etc.,  are  entered  on  a  map 
of  the  forest. 

The  register  of  area  consists  of  four  parts: 

(A)  The  index  to  all  extant  maps,  estimates,  and  working 
plans  for  the  forest. 

(B)  A  record  of  all  changes  in  area. 

(C)  A  record  of  all  changes  in  ownership,  servitudes,  etc. 

(D)  A  record  of  the  changes  in  the  area  devoted  to  the  growth 
of  timber. 

Since  the  year  1852  there  have  been  detailed  instructions 
for  the  revision  of  working  plans.  Until  recently  this  included 
not  only  the  regulation  of  the  yield,  but  also  the  actual  admin- 

10 


140  TIIK    TllKORY   AND    PRACTICE    OF    WORKING   PLANS 

islration  of  the  forest.  With  the  advent  of  frequent  statistical 
rej^orts  and  inspection  trips,  this  last  fell  into  abeyance. 

The  work  of  revision  is  similar  to  that  of  a  new  working  plan ; 
the  degree  of  revision  necessary  dejx^nds  on  the  changes  which 
have  occurred.  Preparatory  to  the  revision,  each  jwrtion  of  the 
forest  is  carefully  gone  over  to  determine  its  present  condition 
as  compared  with  the  condition  at  the  time  the  estimate  was 
made,  in  order  to  form  an  adequate  basis  for  judging  the  elTective- 
ness  of  the  measures  of  the  working  plan,  their  further  use- 
fulness, and  extent  to  which  they  require  revision.  The  results 
of  this  examination  are  presented  in  brief — oftentimes  tabular — 
form,  especially  as  concerns  cuttings,  plantings,  financial  results, 
changes  in  area,  servitudes,  and  the  like. 

Simple  revisions  are  made  by  the  Oberforster  (supervisor) 
himself,  more  complicated  ones  by  men  especially  detailed,  as 
in  the  case  of  the  original  estimates.  All  revisions  are  based 
on  a  conference  between  the  officials  concerned,  following  the 
precedent  of  the  working-plan  conference ;  this  conference 
decides  upon  the  further  usefulness  of  the  working  plan  as  it 
stands,  just  what  revisions  arc  to  be  undertaken,  and  along  what 
h'nes. 

The  following  are  given  as  the  chief  considerations  in  the 
revision  of  a  working  plan: 

(i)  The  correction  of  the  surveys  and  estimates.  The  area 
register  and  the  second  part  of  the  chief  note-book  together 
with  the  forest  maps  posted  to  date  are  aids  in  this. 

(2)  Review  of  the  accomplished  cutting  and  regeneration. 
The  bases  of  this  are  the  control-book  and  the  chief  note-book. 
As  an  index  to  the  results  of  management,  the  cut  is  totalled  for 
the  period;  in  addition  there  is  compiled  from  Part  A  i  of  the 
control-book  a  comparison  of  the  estimated  cut  with  the  actual 
cut;  the  areas  i)lante(l  or  sown  during  the  period  are  also  sum- 
marized. 

(3)  Review  of  the  silvicultural  method  of  treatment,  the 
rotation,  division  of  area.  etc. 

(4)  Review  of  the  regulation  of  the  yirld  both  in  dctiTmina- 


THE   THEORY   AND   PRACTICE    OF   WORKING   PLANS  147 

tion   and   distribution.     This  may  involve   a  partial   or   even 
complete  revision  of  the  estimates. 

(5)  The  drawing  up  of  new  general  cutting  and  planting 
plans  according  to  the  revised  regulation. 

(6)  The  correction  or  even  redrafting  of  the  forest  map. 

II.  Bavaria 

Bavaria  is  the  second  largest  of  the  German  States.  Of  its 
18,739,890  acres,  32.51  per  cent  (6,072,386  acres)  are  in  forest. 

Bavaria  presents  widely  varying  topographic  and  forest 
conditions,  from  the  rugged  spruce  and  hr-clad  northern  ranges 
of  the  Alps  along  the  southern  boundary,  through  the  varied 
spruce,  fir,  and  Scotch  pine  stands  mixed  more  or  less  with  hard- 
woods, of  the  central  and  northern  portions,  to  the  extensive 
stands  of  pure  spruce  on  the  east — the  famous  "Bohemian 
woods,"  low  ranges  not  exceeding  5,000  feet  elevation,  which 
form  the  boundary  with  Austria — and  the  magnificent  oaks  of 
the  Spessart  in  the  north-west  corner. 

The  market  for  timber  in  Bavaria  is  very  variable.  In  the 
more  remote  locaUties,  such  as  the  Alps  on  the  south  or  the 
''Bohemian  woods"  on  the  east,  utilization  is  still,  necessarily, 
incomplete.  In  the  northern  and  central  portions  of  the  kingdom 
intensive  agriculture  has  brought  with  it  the  profitable  possi- 
bility of  complete  utilization. 

Systematic  forest  organization  in  Bavaria  dates  from  1830, 
when  the  combined  period  method  (see  Part  One,  Chapter  II, 
Section  i,  Method  No.  17)  was  adopted  by  a  governmental 
order.*  The  period  was  taken  as  24  years  instead  of  the  cus- 
tomary 20  years.  The  yield  w^as  regulated  for  three  periods — 
72  years — in  advance. 

The  end  of  the  nineteenth  and  beginning  of  the  twentieth 
century  witnessed  a  revolution  in  the  forest  policy  of  Bavaria, 
away  from  the  often  excessive  conservatism  of  the  early  days, 
towards  a  more  hberal  interpretation  of  the  State's  economic 

*  "Instruktion  fiir  Forstwirtschaftseinrichtung,"  June  30,  1830. 


148  THE    THEORY   AND   PRACTICE    OF    WORKING    PLANS 

dut\ .  especially  in  regard  to  the  increasing  tendency  to  manage 
the  State  forests  for  profit  as  well  as  for  a  future  timber 
supply. 

This  change  in  general  policy  has  manifested  itself  in  the 
new  instructions  for  forest  adjustment.*  These  are  the  most 
recent  of  the  working-plan  instructions  for  any  of  the  major 
States,  and  because  of  their  absolute  modernity  deserve  some- 
what detailed  mention. 

The  objects  of  forest  organization  are  given  as: 
(i)  To  give  a  clear  conception  of  existing  conditions  in  the 
forest. 

(2)  To  deduce  from  these  conditions  and  the  purposes  which 
the  forest  is  to  serve  the  object  and  methods  of  management  and 
the  determination  of  the  jield. 

(3)  To  regulate  the  yield  in  detail  for  the  ensuing  working 
period. 

(4)  To  control  the  execution  of  the  plan  and  to  secure 
statistical  data  thereon. 

The  working-plan  unit  (working  figure)  usually  coincides 
with  the  administrative  unit  (forest),  but  this  is  not  essential; 
if  conditions  on  two  or  more  adjacent  forests  are  sutViciently 
similar  one  working  plan  may  suilice. 

The  working-plan  unit  (working  figure,  "Betriebsverband") 
is  divided  into  districts,  and  these  into  compartments.  This 
division  is  primarily  for  the  j)urpose  of  orderl\-  arrangement 
and  easier  orientation. 

The  basis  of  division  into  districts  (blocks)  is  usually  topo- 
graphic; sometimes,  however,  matters  of  status  and  of  servi- 
tudes cause  the  segregation  of  a  district. 

The  basis  of  division  into  compartments  is  chiefly  silvi- 
cultural,  i.e.,  difTerences  in  elevation,  exposure,  opening  of  logging 
means,  formation  of  a  forest  mantle  against  windfall,  etc.  The 
actual  boundaries  are  u.sually  topograj)hic  ravines,  ridges,  etc. — 
with  artificial  boundaries — roads,  trails,  cut-out  lanes,  etc. — as 

•  ".Anweisung  fur  die  ForstcinrichtunR  in  den  KoniRlich  Bayrischcn 
Staatswaldungcn,"  Munich,  1910,  Vcrlagsbuchhandlung  Oskar  Beck. 


THE   THEORY  AND  PRACTICE   OF   WORKIXG  PLANS  149 

needed.  For  mere  division  of  area  a  width  of  3  metres  (9.84  feet)* 
suffices;  where  protection  from  fire  or  wind  also  comes  into  play 
(formation  of  windmantles),  the  width  must  be  increased 
accordingly. 

The  determination  of  existing  conditions  (the  first  task  of 
forest  organization)  begins  with  the  division  of  each  compart- 
ment into  forest  and  non-forest  soil;  the  latter  includes  not 
only  those  areas  unsuited  for  forest,  but  also  those  suited  for 
forest  but  used  otherwise.  Where  accurate  measurements  are 
impossible,  as  in  the  Alpine  zone,  estimates  of  the  relative  area 
suffice. 

Of  the  forest  areas,  those  are  to  be  distinguished  whose 
yield  is  naturally  very  sHght  (Alpine  t^-pe)  or,  for  reasons  of 
protection,  cost  of  logging,  etc.,  do  not  permit  of  complete, 
regular  utilization. 

The  compartment  is  divided  into  subcompartments.  The 
basis  of  this  division  is  the  individual  stand.  On  the  stand  as 
the  ultimate  unit  is  built  up  the  entire  management. 

The  stand,  or  subcompartment,  must  be  a  unit  as  regards  site, 
soil  quaHty,  species,  age,  and  character  (growth,  density,  health, 
etc.).  A  stand  must  differ  in  at  least  one  of  these  features  in 
order  to  be  made  into  a  subcompartment.  However,  all  minor 
differences  are  to  be  disregarded.  The  minimum  size  of  a  sub- 
compartment is  usually  i  hectare  (2.47  acres). 

In  coppice  and  in  selection  forest  the  segregation  of  stands 
(subcompartments)  is  often  impossible,  and  the  compartments 
must  suffice. 

Wherever  possible  the  subcompartment  boundaries  are  to  be 
topographic  features  or  roads,  trails,  etc.  Where  these  do  not 
suffice,  lines  are  cleared  to  a  width  of  1-2  metres  (3.28  to  6.56 
feet)  and  rings  of  white  paint  put  on  the  border  trees. 

In  uneven-aged  stands  the  average  age  as  well  as  the  age 
limits  is  to  be  given.    Throughout  the  greatest  attention  is  given 

*  In  Saxony  the  main  compartment  lines  running  north  and  south  (Wirt- 
schaftsstreifen)  average  9  metres  (29.52  feet);  the  secondary  compartment 
lines  running  east  and  west  (Schneisen)  average  4>^  metres  (14.76  feet). 


150  THE    THEORY   AND    PKAriUE    OF    WORKING    PLANS 

to  the  presentation  of  the  age  chisses  in  their  relation  to  area  by 
I,  species,  singly  and  in  mLxture;  2.  site  qualities;  and  3.  density 
of  stocking.  These  are  shown  graphically  by  means  of  diagrams. 
The  reason  of  this  attention  to  the  age-class  relation  is  that 
in  even-aged  high  forest  it  is  made,  in  conjunction  with  data  on 
the  thriftincss  of  stands  and  their  suitability  to  the  chosen  site, 
the  basis  of  regulating  the  yield  and  of  judging  the  progress 
towards  a  normal  forest.  In  coppice  with  preponderating  stand- 
ards ("Oberholzreichen  Mittelwald")  and  in  selection  forest  a 
presentation  of  the  age  classes  is  seldom  practicable;  the  most 
that  could  be  done  would  be  a  summary  of  the  area  occupied  by 
each  age  class  within  the  same  (uneven-aged)  stand,  and  this 
gives  no  adequate  basis  for  judgment. 

Detailed  estimates  are  conlined  usually  to  those  stands 
intended  for  cutting  during  the  ensuing  working  period  of  ten 
years.  Ocular  estimates  suffice  if  conditions  are  regular  and 
there  are  available  data  on  cuttings  of,  or  yield  tables  for,  similar 
stands.  In  all  other  cases  caliper  measurements  either  of  sample 
plots  or  of  every  tree,  as  the  irregularity  of  the  stand  may  neces- 
sitate, are  required. 

The  increment  is  to  be  determined  for  the  ne.xt  twenty  years, 
because  it  is  a  fundamental  principle  that,  at  the  end  of  twenty 
years  at  the  latest,  the  working  plan  is  to  be  completely  revised, 
growing  stock,  increment,  and  yield  redetennined.  However, 
only  half  the  increment  for  the  twenty  years  is  to  be  added  to 
the  present  volume  of  the  stands  to  be  cut,  since  at  the  end  of 
the  first  decade  half  of  the  stands  so  designated  will  have  been 
cut  and  be  without  further  increment  (see  diagram,  Part  One, 
Chapter  II,  Section  i). 

The  increment  is  taken  either  from  suitable  normal  yie.d 
tables  or  as  the  current  annual.  The  former  is  simple;  the  latter, 
in  irregular  and  overmature  stands,  more  reliable.  The  mean 
annual  increment  can  be  used  if.  by  investigation,  it  has  been 
determined  what  relation  with  increasing  age  and  on  different 
site  qualities  the  current  annual  increment  bears  to  the  mean 
annual. 


THE   THEORY   AND   PR.A.CTICE    OF    WORKING   PLANS  151 

A  peculiarity  of  Bavarian  forest  organization  is  the  ''Char- 
acter  Index''  ("Charakterzahl'')  of  the  stand;  -7  or  the  number 

of  stems  per  hectare  divided  by  the  average  diameter.  This 
index  figure  is  determined  separately  for  each  stand. 

In  the  description  of  existing  conditions,  special  attention 
is  paid  to  the  methods  of  getting  out  the  timber  and  suggestions 
for  the  development  of  roads,  and  other  logging  methods.  Forests 
only  partially  accessible  demand  a  plan  of  logging  which  includes 
portions  now  inaccessible  as  well  as  those  already  opened  to 
management.  This  plan  is  usually  indicated  on  a  contour 
map. 

The  real  and  the  normal  growing  stock  are  determined  (the 
latter  from  yield  tables),  since  they  show  whether  there  is  an 
excess  or  a  deficit.  The  relation  of  normal  increment  to  normal 
growing  stock  gives  the  normal  yield  by  which  the  actual  yield 
can  be  judged  (see  Hundeshagen's  formula,  Part  One,  Chapter  II, 
Section  i,  Method  No.  7). 

On  the  basis  of  conditions  as  they  exist,  the  general  rules 
of  management  are  then  formulated  according  to  the  objects 
which  the  forest  is  to  serve.  A  decision  must  therefore  be  reached 
as  to  species,  form  of  stands  desired,  silvicultural  systems, 
working  figures  ("Betriebsklassen"),  and  t-he  rotation  to  be 
adopted.  Finally  the  cutting  area  for  the  next  working  period 
must  be  fixed. 

A  working  figure  (''Betricbsklasse")  is  that  portion  of  one  or 
more  administrative  units  ("Betriebsverbande,"  forests)  varying 
sufficiently  from  conditions  on  the  rest  of  the  area  to  warrant  a 
separate  age-class  table  and  calculation  of  the  yield.  These 
variations  can  be  in  silvicultural  system;  in  difterent  age  of 
maturity  in  the  species  {i.e.,  different  rotations);  in  marked 
difference  of  increment,  especially  in  widely  varying  elevations; 
and  in  important  servitudes  which  influence  the  course  of  man- 
agement. 

It  is  to  be  remembered,  however,  that  too  many  working 
figures  make  the  plan  unwieldy  and  difficult  of  execution,  hence 


]')2  THE   THEORY   AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING  PLAN'S 

only  considerable  differences  are  to  be  taken  into  account  in 
forming  working  figures. 

The  instructions  for  determining'  the  rotation  age  are  a 
declaration  of  principles  for  the  new  Havarian  forest  poHcy. 
The  rotation  age  is  to  be  governed  by  the  objects  of  manage- 
ment: "Without  violating  the  sustained  yield  and  with  due 
regard  to  rights  of  user,  to  secure  the  highest  jwssible  production 
of  those  classes  of  timber  best  suited  to  the  needs  of  the  com- 
munity and  of  the  country  as  a  whole.  In  addition,  the  admin- 
istration is  bound  to  manage  the  State  property  entrusted  to  it 
in  an  economic  manner,  and  from  the  management  to  secure  the 
highest  possible  money  revenue. 

"According,  therefore,  as  a  forest  is  not  exclusively  or  i)re- 
ponderatingly  intended  to  satisfy  servitudes  or  to  be  a  protection 
or  a  recreation  forest,  the  management  must  aim  at  the  largest 
possible  production  of  most  demanded  timber  and  at  the  economic 
securing  of  a  maximum  money  revenue." 

The  rotation  age  must  be  determined  from  this  standi)oint. 
This  determination  is  not  to  be  confined  to  the  older  stands, 
but  must  extend  to  the  younger  classes  whose  origin  and  growth 
arc  often  different  from  that  of  the  older  timbers;*  for  in  fixing 
the  rotation  age,  the  period  of  years  required  for  these  younger 
stands  to  reach  maturity  is  the  most  important. 

The  possible  rotation  period  is  bounded  on  the  lower  side 
by  the  merchantal)ility  of  the  sizes  secured,  on  the  upper  side 
by  the  age  at  which  the  forest  rent  ceases  to  increase.  The  time 
of  maximum  forest  rent  is  therefore  the  extreme  rotation  age. 
As  a  rule  the  rotation  is  to  be  fixed  at  that  age  which  produces 
the  maximum  amount  of  timber  of  medium  si/c.  provided  the 
site  quality  permits.    On  poorer  sites  the  growth  is  slower,  and 


*  This  {liffcTcncf  is  well  illuslrati-d  by  the  WVstcrn  yellow  pine.  Measiire- 
nicnts  made  by  the  author  near  KUiKstatT,  .Xrizona,  in  1907,  show  that  the 
mature  yellow  pine,  when  in  the  "blackjack"  form,  grew  much  slower 
than  the  present  "blackjack"  of  the  siime  size;  e.R.,  at  too  years  of  aj;e  the 
present  "yellow  pine"  were  13.2  inches  diameter  breast  high;  the  presc-nt 
"blackjack"  17.95  inches  diameter  breast  high.  Sec  Forest  Service  Bulletin 
loi,  "Western  'Wllow  Pine  in  .Xrizona  and  New  Mexico,"  tables  9  and  10. 


THE   THEORY  AXD  P1L\CTICE   OF  WORKING  PLAXS  153 

there  the  management  must  be  satisfied  with  the  production  of 
smaller  sized  timber  if  the  rotation  is  not  to  be  unduly  prolonged. 

Some  sacrifices,  however,  of  mere  income  to  the  production  of 
larger  timbers  is  proper,  since  it  is  the  duty  of  the  state  to  provide 
for  these.  But  where  this  can  be  secured  only  at  the  sacrifice 
of  a  satisfactory  income  per  cent  the  prolongation  of  the  rotation 
is  unwarranted. 

Besides  the  mathematical  calculations  of  timber  and  money 
^deld  certain  other  factors  come  into  play,  e.g.,  the  influence  of 
the  rotation  age  on  the  condition  of  the  soil  and  on  the  capacity 
of  the  stand  for  natural  regeneration,  the  increased  danger  of 
windfall,  the  decreased  vigor  with  increasing  years,  the  possi- 
bility of  intensive  thinnings,  and  other  partly  economic,  partly 
silvicultural,  partly  administrative  considerations. 

Where  there  are  several  species  with  considerable  variance 
in  their  rotation  age,  but  working  figures  are  not  segregated, 
the  rotation  age  is  taken  as  the  geometric  mean  of  the  respective 
areas  and  rotations. 

In  selection  forest  a  rotation  age  is  difficult  of  determination 
because  of  the  widely  varying  conditions  of  growth.  Diameter 
is  a  better  guide,  i.e.,  the  diameter  of  greatest  productivity 
determined  by  measurements  of  sample  trees.  Trees  which  have 
reached  the  diameter  so  determined  are  merchantable. 

For  every  working  figure  the  area  must  be  determined  which 
is  to  be  cut  over  in  the  ensuing  twenty-year  working  period. 
The  fundamental  consideration  is  to  gauge  the  cutting  areas 
so  that  overmature  stands  and  cutting  of  immature  stands  are 
both  avoided,  but  at  the  same  time  so  that  undue  vacillations 
of  area  cut  over  do  not  occur  with  their  bad  effect  on  local 
market  for  and  needs  of  timber,  employment  for  men  in  the 
woods,  and  also  delayed  normality  in  the  distribution  of  the  age 
classes. 

If  the  cutting  areas  are  gauged  properly  and  if,  in  addition, 
by  means  of  prompt  regeneration,  care  of  soil  and  growth,  the 
increment  in  volume  and  in  value  is  furthered,  then  the  demands 
of  a  sustained  yield  are  fully  met. 


154  THE    THKOKY   AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING    PLANS 

In  the  normal  forest  the  periodic  culling  area  is  constanlly 

Total  area  „.,  ,  ,        ,..,,. 

equal  to  "p   .  ":• —  X  20.     Where  the  age-class  distribution  is 

abnormal  this  figure  can  sers'e  only  as  a  means  of  comparison. 
In  such  a  case  the  periodic  cutting  area  is  the  sum  of  the  stands 
requiring  culling  for  silvicullural  reasons  ("hiebsbediirflig"), 
stands  now  mature  ("hiebsreif '')  or  becoming  mature  in  the  next 
twenty  \ears. 

Where  the  distribution  of  the  age  classes  shows  a  marked 
departure  from  the  normal,  the  progress  of  the  cuttings  must 
be  gauged  for  several  decades  in  advance,  so  as  to  foretell  the 
progress  which  the  cutting  of  the  present  working  period  will 
make  towards  a  normal  distribution  of  the  age  classes.  This 
is  to  be  done  schematically  according  to  the  following  form: 

Premise. — Rotation  =  100  years.     Area  =  982.2  acres. 

Normal  periodic  cutting  area  =  — -X  20=  196.4 

acres;  for  silvicullural  reasons  (overmaturity  and  poor  growth) 
this  has  to  be  increased  to  258  acres.  This  overcutting  is 
then  equalized  in  ensuing  periods.    (See  table  ne.xt  page.) 

The  distribution  of  culling  areas  for  the  ensuing  working 
period  is  not  confined  to  assigning  half  the  periodic  area  to  the 
ten  years  elapsing  before  the  intermediate  revision.  The  admin- 
istrative officer  in  charge  of  the  forest  requires  leeway  in  the 
choice  of  where  to  cut;  for  he  must  vary  his  points  of  attack, 
use  to  the  full  each  seed  year,  secure  a  mixture  of  species  by 
advance  regeneration  of  certain  ones  (r.^.,  of  fir  in  spruce-tir  type; 
of  beech  in  pine-beech  type),  take  thought  of  the  lluclualions 
in  the  demand  for  timber,  aim  to  secure  each  year  an  approx- 
imately equal  revenue,  etc.  This  is  possible  only  if  the  field  of 
operations  is  larger  than  the  mere  ten-year  cutting  area.  This 
is  secured  by  allowing  the  administrative  ofiicer  in  charge  of 
the  forest  to  pick  from  the  periodic  (twenty-year)  cutting  area 
those  areas  for  the  cutting  in  the  ensuing  decade  which  he  deems 
most  expedient  for  reasons  of  silviculture,  cutting  sequence 
(cutting  series),  administration,  and  maturity. 


THE   THEORY   AND   PRACTICE    OF   WORKING   PLANS 


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loO  THK    TIIKORY    AND    PRACTICE    OF    WORKING    PLANS 

If  llio  sum  of  the  stands  so  chosen  greatly  exceeds  tJie  allowed 
ten-year  cutting  area,  those  stands  are  to  be  excluded  and  saved 
for  a  future  decade  whose  growth  is  the  most  thrifty  and  valuable. 

By  dividing  the  entire  j)eriodic  cutting  area  into  the  mer- 
chantable volume  thereon,  the  cut  per  hectare  is  obtained.  This 
multiplied  by  the  annual  cutting  area  gives  the  allowed  annual 
cut  in  volume. 

In  coi)pice  with  preponderating  standards  and  in  selection 
forest  regulation  by  area  is  not  desirable,  since  it  does  not  do 
justice  to  the  complicated  and  varying  needs  of  the  tree  in  such 
uneven -aged  stands.*  In  such  stands  the  cut  for  the  ensuing 
working  period  consists  of  all  trees  above  a  fixed  diameter 
(determined  as  stated  above),  in  addition  the  volume  of  those 
trees  which  during  the  next  ten  years  will  reach  this  diameter 
and  such  as  have  to  be  removed  for  silvicultural  reasons  ("wolf- 
trees,"  "snobs,"  etc.).  In  the  case  of  coppice  with  standards 
there  is,  also,  of  course,  the  volume  of  the  coppice.  A  tenth  of 
the  total  amount  for  the  next  decade  is  the  annual  yield;  this 
is  checked  by  the  current  increment  per  cent — the  sum  of  the 
increment  per  cents  of  each  diameter  class,  and  by  the  result 
of  past  cuttings.  Order  and  progress  of  the  cuttings  arc  insured 
by  the  observance  of  a  cutting  cycle. 

The  provisions  for  renewal  of  the  working  i^lan  are  as  fol- 
lows: Each  plan  is  drawn  up  for  a  period  of  twenty  years,  but 
at  the  end  of  the  first  decade  an  intermediate  revision — or 
review — is  had;  at  the  end  of  the  twenty  years  a  complete 
revision  is  had  resulting  in  a  new  plan.  Exceptional  circum- 
stances may  necessitate  a  complete  revision  before  that  time, 
as  when  unforeseen  changes  have  occurred  in  the  very  founda- 
tions of  the  plan.  Often,  however,  it  suffices  in  such  cases  to 
make  provisional  changes  for  the  remainder  of  the  working 
period.  Natural  calamities — wind,  fire,  etc. — always  require 
some  time,  as  things  are,  before  the  measure  of  the  catastrophe 
can  be  properly  judged. 

♦  Where  the  undergrowth  is  too  dense  to  permit  ralipering,  it  may  be 
necessary  to  regulate  the  yield,  even  of  coppice  with  standards,  by  area. 


THE   THEORY  AND  PRACTICE   OF  WORKING  PLANS  157 

The  intermediate  revisions  are  to  coven  the  following  points: 
a.  Necessary  corrections  of  the  methods  of  determining  the 

yield  (checking  of  estimates,  etc.). 

h.  Determination  of  the  cutting  areas  for  the  past  decade, 

comparison  with  the  allowed  area,  and  determination  of  the 

area  for  the  ensuing  decade  which  again  is  really  that  for  a  period 

of  twenty  years. 

c.  Emendation  of  the  plan  of  management. 

d.  Determination  of  the  volume  yield  of  the  next  working 
period  (based  on  a,  h,  and  c). 

e.  The  making  of  a  new  map  of  the  forest. 

In  the  main  revisions  the  task  is  a  similar  one,,  but  more 
exhaustive.  The  results  of  the  management  during  the  past 
period — 20  years — are  to  be  compiled  and  the  whole  structure 
of  the  working  plan  renewed  as  may  be  necessary. 

Bavaria,  in  common  with  many  of  the  German  States,  has 
a  separate  section  of  working  plans  in  the  central  office  at 
Munich.  This  section  is  charged  with  the  field-work  and  the 
office  preparation  of  the  plans.  The  supervisor  of  the  forest 
concerned  is  consulted  in  every  feature  of  the  plan;  he  and  his 
subordinates  are  charged  to  assist  in  the  preparation  thereof. 

The  bases  of  the  plan  as  well  as  the  completed  plan  require 
the  approval  of  the  royal  ministry  of  finance,  forest  section. 

The  procedure  in  working  plans  is  as  follows: 

During  the  working  period  the  supervisor  is  supposed  to 
keep  careful  record  of  such  results  of  management  as  aid  in 
judging  of  the  volume  and  value  yield.  The  underlying  field 
data  can  often  be  supplemented  by  him  during  slack  periods  of 
the  year. 

In  the  last  year  of  the  twenty-year  working  period  the  super- 
visor has  to  report  about  the  execution  of  the  working  plan,  the 
experiences  gained  thereby,  and  about  the  essential  results  of 
the  management,  the  changes  in  the  condition  of  the  forest,  to 
express  himself  about  the  fundamentals  of  the  working  plan 
and  to  base  suggested  changes  on  detailed  data. 

The  district  inspection  officer  has  to  express  himself  as  to 


158  THE   THEORY   AND  PR,\CTICE   OF  WORKING   PLANS 

this  report  and  these  recommendations  of  the  supervisor.  The 
working-plans  oflicer  assigned  for  the  task  has  then,  in  company 
with  the  district  oflicer  and  the  oflicers  of  the  forest,  to  go  over 
the  forest  in  detail.  On  the  basis  of  this  trip  over  the  forest, 
and  after  due  consideration  of  the  proposals  made  by  the  dis- 
trict ofljcer  and  the  supervisor.*  the  wc)rking-j)lans  oflicer  draws 
up  the  fundamentals  of  the  new  working  plan,  and  the  scheme 
of  field-work.  Often,  of  course,  some  of  these  fundamentals 
must  await,  at  least  in  part,  certain  investigations  in  the  field; 
for  such  points  a  supplement  is  to  be  prepared. 

The  fundamentals  as  agreed  upon  at  the  working-jilan  con- 
ference and  any  supplement  thereto,  must  be  aj)proved  by  the 
State  ministry  of  finance. 

In  the  last  year  of  each  decade.  aLso.  the  supervisor  must 
anticipate  the  intermediate  revision  or  review  by  a  report  on 
the  correctness  and  applicability  of  the  methods  of  yield  deter- 
mination and  of  the  rules  of  management. 

A  working-jilan  conference  and  consequent  drawing  up  of 
the  fundamentals  of  the  j^roposed  plan  are  not  necessary  in  the 
intermediate  revisions. 

The  field-work  is  done  by  assistants  of  the  working-plans 
officer  in  so  far  as  the  forest  force  cannot  be  used  therefor. 
The  party  may  be  divided  into  sections,  each  under  the  direction 
of  a  section  chief  versed  in  working-plans  procedure.  These 
section  chiefs  and  their  workmen  are  instructed  (if  necessary 
in  writing)  by  the  working-plans  officer  acting  in  conjunction 
with  the  administrative  officers  of  the  forest. 

The  supervisor  has  to  keep  in  touch  with  the  progress  of 
the  work  and  the  manner  of  execution.  The  section  chief,  on 
demand,  must  report  thereon  to  the  supervisor. 

The  working  uj)  of  the  field  data  and  the  preparation  of  the 
working-plan  document  is  the  task  of  the  section  of  working 
plans  in  the  central  office  at  Munich.  As  soon  as  the  essentials 
of  the  plan  are  ready  in  rough  draft,  they  are  to  be  submitted 


*  If  their  advice  is  refused  the  reason  for  such  refus;il  must  be  stated 
by  the  working-plans  officer. 


THE   THEORY   AND   PILACTICE    OF    \\ORKING   PLANS  159 

to  the  supervisor  of  the  forest  for  his  review  and  written  rec- 
ommendations and  memoranda.  These  last  are  to  be  incor- 
porated in  the  working-plan  document.  Then  the  draft  of  the 
plan  is  submitted  to  the  officers  of  the  district  and  central 
offices,  who  must  also  record  any  divergent  opinions  in  writing. 

Finally,  all  new  working  plans  or  main  revisions  have  to  be 
laid  before  the  ministry  of  finance  for  its  approval,  which  puts 
the  plan  in  force.  In  intermediate  revisions  it  suffices  to  notify 
the  ministry  of  departures  necessitated  from  the  original  plan, 
before  submitting  the  revised  plan  to  the  supervisor  for  execution. 

A  map  of  the  forest  forms  an  indispensable  part  of  every 
working  plan. 

No  special  document  is  necessary  for  the  intermediate  revi- 
sions ;  the  existing  plan  is  merely  amended  in  the  text,  if  neces- 
sary by  the  insertion  of  extra  pages. 

A  part  of  every  revision  is  a  resume  of  the  management  dur- 
ing the  working  period  just  concluded. 

III.  Saxony 

Although  small  in  size — 3,703,271  acres — Saxony  is,  because 
of  its  dense  population  and  great  industrial  development,  the 
state  of  third  importance  in  Germany.  Despite  its  dense  pop- 
ulation, 949,813  acres,  or  25.65  per  cent  of  the  total  area,  is 
forested. 

Saxony  is  a  compact  unit,  roughly  triangular  in  shape,  the 
low  mountains  of  the  Erz  Gebirge  forming  the  base  and  the 
city  of  Leipzig  the  apex.  The  stands  in  Saxony  are,  overwhelm- 
ingly, pure  spruce  with  Scotch  pine  stands  in  the  northern, 
plains  portion. 

The  Saxon  markets  are  pluperfect,  which  explains  the  suc- 
cess of  the  Saxon  spruce  management  with  such  a  low  rotation 
and  resulting  small  diameter.* 

Forest  organization  in  Saxony  is  under  the  control  of  a  cen- 

*  See  "  Management  of  Spruce  in  Saxony,"  Article  V  in  the  series.  "  Amer-: 
ican  Aspects  of  European  Forestry"  in  "Forestry  Quarterly,"  Volume  XI. 


100  THi:    THEORY    AND    PKACTKE    OF    WORKING    PLANS 

tral  bureau  of  forest  organization  ( Forsteinrichtungsanstalt)  in 
Dresden.  This  has  worked  well,  since  it  has  secured  uniformity 
of  methods  and  results  and  an  experienced,  well-drilled  per- 
sonnel. It  also  established  for  forest  organization  a  defmite 
and  correct  interrelation  with  the  other  branches  of  forestry — 
administration,  experimentation,  etc. 

As  in  most  of  the  Cierman  states,  the  regulation  of  yield 
was  first  by  the  period  method.  Heinrich  Cotta,  who  system- 
atized the  working  plans  for  the  Saxon  state  forests  in  the  years 
1811  to  1831,  endorsed  both  the  area  period  and  the  combined 
period  methods.  Frequent,  regular  revisions  soon  obviated 
the  necessity  of  determining  the  yield  several  periods  of  twenty 
years  each  in  advance.  The  period  method  was  therefore  aban- 
doned and  the  determination  of  yield  confined  to  the  next  decade 
by  means  of  the  stand  method  ("Bestandswirtschaft")  (Method 
No.  16,  Part  One,  Chapter  II,  Section  i).* 

The  division  of  area  is  as  far  as  possible  rectilinear,  the 
boundaries  being  used  as  roads.  Because  of  the  imminent 
danger  of  windfall  in  spruce,  the  lines  are  run  parallel  with  and 
at  right  angles  to  the  prevailing  wind  direction. 

Stands  (subcompartments)  are  segregated  down  to  a  mini- 
mum area  of  half  an  acre.  The  prevalent  uniformity  of  con- 
ditions permits  of  tabulated  forest  descriptions.  Site  quality  is 
gauged  both  according  to  the  intrinsic  quality  of  the  soil  (Stand- 
ortsbonitiit)  and  according  to  the  quality  of  the  stand  growing 
thereon  (Bestandsbonitat).  The  two  by  no  means  always  coin- 
cide; for  the  stand  growing  on  a  certain  site  is  not  necessarily 
the  one  best  suited  to  it. 

The  age  classes  are  in  twenty-year  gradations — each  age 
class  is  again  divided  in  half  so  that  the  age-class  distribution  is 
recorded  by  decades. 

Owing  to  the  great  regularity  of  the  stands.  calij)cring  is  not 
ordinarily  necessary.  Stands  less  than  half  of  the  usual  rota- 
tion of    eighty  years  are  estimated   from  yield  tables;    stands 


*  F"or  outline  of  Saxon  working  plan,  see  Part  Qnc,  Chapter  III,  Section  2. 


THE    THEORY   AND    PRACTICE    OF    WORKING   PLANS  161 

over  forty  years  old  are  estimated  ocularly  and  reestimated  at 
each  ten-year  revision. 

Where  clear  cutting  preponderates,  the  normal  annual  cut 
is  taken  roughly  as  the  total  area  divided  by  the  rotation.  The 
proper  rotation  age  is  determined  by  applying  the  index  per 
cent  (Weiserprozent)  to  the  individual  stand,  i.e.,  determining 
the  maximum  value  increment  (see  Part  One,  Chapter  I,  Sec- 
tion 3).  Tables  of  value  increment  have  been  prepared  for 
the  whole  kingdom  of  Saxony,  based  on  the  prices  secured  in 
the  open  market  for  the  various  classes  of  timber. 

Saxon  forestry  foots  on  the  soil-rent  basis.  In  order  to  show 
the  profits  of  management  on  this  basis,  the  net  income  for  the 
whole  forest  is  compared  with  the  total  cost  of  production. 
This  is  done  for  purposes  of  forest  organization,  by  determining 
the  timber  and  soil  capital  which  the  forest  represents  and 
then  showing  in  tabular  form  the  rate  of  interest  returned 
thereon  for  each  year  by  the  forest  management  (Reinertrags- 
ubersicht) . 

The  normal  annual  cutting  area  is  maintained  as  nearly  as 
may  be.  Under  irregular  concUtions,  departures  therefrom  are 
necessary.  The  table  of  age-class  distribution  serves  as  an  index 
to  the  degree  of  departure  necessary.  If  the  higher  age  classes 
are  in  excess,  the  annual  cutting  area  is  increased;  conversely, 
it  is  diminished.  Hence,  a  careful  exposition  of  the  age-class 
distribution  is  of  vital  importance. 

The  Saxon  system,  of  maximum  money  returns  on  the  invest- 
ment, demands  that  those  stands  whose  index  per  cent  is  lowest 
be  cut  first.  The  next  most  important  consideration  is  the  cut- 
ting series;  for  the  preponderance  of  spruce,  the  danger  from 
"windfall  demands  that  the  cutting  areas  progress  towards  the 
prevaiHng  wind  direction.  Since  the  cutting  strips  are  narrow 
and  an  interval  elapses  before  the  adjacent  strip  is  cut,  it  fol- 
lows, as  a  general  rule,  that  the  cutting  series  are  short.  How- 
ever, in  order  to  accomplish  this  and  to  avoid  the  joining  to- 
gether of  large  areas  of  practically  equal  age,  it  is  necessary  to 
have  many  points  of  attack.     To  secure  these,  the  edge  of  a 


102  TIIK    THKORY    AND    PR.\CTI(K    OF    WORKING    PLANS 

Stand  exposed  by  the  renK)\al  of  the  sheltering  stand  to  wind- 
ward, must  betimes  be  accustomed  to  the  exposure  by  the  for- 
mation of  deep  crowns — the  so-called  forest  mantle  or  wind 
mantle  (see  Part  One,  Chapter  II,  Section  2). 

The  most  important  task  of  the  forest  organization,  as  re- 
gards arrangement  of  area,  is  the  selection  of  these  points  of 
attack  for  the  cutting  series.  The  further  development  of  the 
cutting  series  can,  however,  be  only  sketched,  since  it  depends 
on  circumstances  which  the  organizer  at  the  time  of  drawing  ui) 
the  plan  cannot  know. 

The  volume  of  the  cut  for  the  working  period  of  ten  years 
is  found  by  ocular  determination  of  the  stand  on  the  area  to  be 
cut  over.  The  yield  to  be  expected  from  thinnings  is  gauged 
according  to  the  results  of  the  decade  past,  aided  by  yield 
tables,  and,  of  course,  with  special  regard  to  the  needs  of  the 
stands. 

Stress  is  laid  on  the  continuity  of  statistical  records  re  age- 
class  distribution,  volume  of  growing  stock,  yearly  cuts  in 
amount  and  classes  of  material,  the  gross  income,  the  expenses, 
the  net  income  (Reinertrag) ,  the  forest  capital,  etc.  These 
records  have  been  kept  in  Saxony  since  181 7  and  are  invaluable 
aids  for  purposes  of  forest  organization. 

In  addition  to  the  revisions  at  the  end  of  the  ten-}ear  work- 
ing period,  there  are,  in  Saxony,  intermediate  re\isions  in  the 
middle  of  the  working  period.  The  most  important  features  of 
revision  are  the  entry  of  cuttings  and  i)lantings  on  the  map  of 
the  forest;  the  comparison  of  the  actual  cut  with  the  estimate; 
the  necessitated  departures  from  the  prescriptions  of  the  work- 
ing plan,  etc. 

For  purposes  of  forest  organization  the  usual  stand  map 
(scale  of  I  :  20,000  or  i  :  15,000)  showing  species,  age,  classes, 
and  cutting  series  is  used  as  a  base  whereon  to  show  the  intended 
cutting  areas  of  the  next  decade,  special  planting  areas,  the 
cutting  series,  etc. 


THE   THEORY  AND   PIL\CTICE   OF   WORKING  PLANS  163 

IV.   WURTTEMBERG 

Wiirttemberg  and  Baden  between  them  contain  the  Black 
Forest,  that  long  line  of  lesser  ranges  flanking  the  Rhine  on  the 
east.  Wiirttemberg  has  an  area  of  4,819,958  acres,  of  which 
30.77  per  cent  or  1,483,025  acres  are  forested. 

Wiirttemberg  is  traversed  by  various  lesser  ranges  which 
give  to  the  whole  kingdom  a  rolling  topography.  The  species 
corresponding  thereto  are  preponderatingly  spruce  and  fir. 

The  splendid  development  of  the  timber  market  in  Wiirt- 
temberg and  of  the  road  system  necessary  to  get  the  timber  on  the 
market  puts  Wiirttemberg  on  a  par  with  Saxony  as  regards 
financially  profitable  management. 

Wiirttemberg's  systematic  forest  organization  dates  from 
the  year  1878.  The  experience  gained  during  the  years  follow- 
ing led  to  a  sweeping  revision  in  1898.  The  period  method  was 
dropped,  with  its  impractical  endowment  of  areas  in  advance 
for  each  twenty-year  period  of  the  rotation.  Attention  was 
centred  on  the  segregation  of  stand  units,  i.e.,  subcompartments 
and  the  regulation  of  yield  based  thereon  rather  than  on  the 
area  of  arbitrary  divisions  (compartments).  The  condition  of 
the  individual  stand  was  made  the  criterion  of  regulation;  the 
yield  is  no  longer  determined  in  advance  for  the  whole  rotation, 
but  usually  for  only  the  first  period  of  20  years,  exceptionally 
for  the  second  period  also.  . 

Normally,    the    cutting    area    of    the  I   Period  =  p^  .   .  • — 

X  20.  Exceptions  are  necessitated  under  abnormal  conditions 
such  as  an  excess  or  deficit  of  merchantable  timber,  etc.  With 
thrifty  stands  and  a  proper  distribution  of  the  age  classes  (in  ten- 
year  gradations)  the  sum  of  the  merchantable  stands  will  auto- 
matically aggregate  the  periodic  cutting  area. 

In  the  choice  of  stands  for  regeneration,  great  attention  is 
paid  to  the  formation  of  proper  cutting  series,  just  as  in  Saxony 
(see  above).* 

*  See  also  Article  VI  of  the  Series  "American  Aspects  of  European  For- 
estry," "Forestry  Quarterly,"  Volume  XI. 


1G4  THE   THEORY  AND  PR.\CTR  E  UF  ^VURKI^•G  PLANS 

The  process  of  forest  organization  is  summarized  as  follows. 
After  rotation,  silvicultural  system,  and  species  have  been  set- 
tled upon  and  the  actual  condition  of  each  stand  (subcompart- 
ment)  accurately  determined,  the  first  period  of  twenty  years 
is  endowed  with  the  proper  area  of  subcompartments  according 
to  the  principles  outlined  above.  Then  for  the  next  decade  the 
stands  on  half  the  period  area  are  accurately  estimated  (cali- 
pered).  Since  there  are  always  unlooked-for  contingencies  re- 
quiring cutting  of  areas  aside  from  those  provided  for  in  the 
plan,  an  amount  based  on  past  e.xperience  is  allowed  for  such 
emergencies. 

A  separate  area  plan  is  drawn  up  for  thinnings. 

Forest  organization  in  Wiirttemberg  is  in  a  state  of  transi- 
tion from  the  period  method  to  that  by  stands;  it  is  not  quite 
"off  with  the  old''  as  yet  nor  "on  with  the  new." 

V.  Baden 

The  Grand  Duchy  of  Baden  is  the  neighbor  state  of  Wiirt- 
temberg. It  has  a  total  area  of  3.725.007  acres,  of  which  1,402,- 
454  acres,  or  37.65  per  cent,  arc  forested,  the  highest  percentage 
of  any  of  the  German  states,  only  excepting  the  pett\  princi- 
palities f '  Waldcck  and  of  Reuss.* 

The  B-ack  Forest  range  traverses  Baden  from  north  to  south 
like  a  backbone.  The  preponderating  species  are  therefore 
spruce  and  fir  (whence  the  name  "Black  Forest")  except  in  the 
northc.j"  plains  and  along  the  Rhine,  where  there  are  stands  of 
hardwoods  (mostly  coppice)  and  of  Scotch  pine. 

As  in  Wiirttemberg,  a  magnificent  road  system  makes  acces- 
sible every  portion  of  the  forests;  a  ready  market  exists  for 
almost  every  class  of  products. 

In  Baden,  too,  forest  organization  developed  from  the  vol- 
ume period  method  (Massenfachwerk).  But  under  the  pre- 
vailing forest  conditions  of  the  Grand  Duchy,  which  is  charac- 

•  These  have  38.18  and  37.74  per  cent,  respectively.  The  average  fur 
the  whole  German  Empire  is  25.88  per  cent. 


THE   THEORY   AND   PRACTICE    OF   WORKING   PLANS  165 

terized  by  splendid  natural  regeneration,*  especially  of  fir,  the 
method  did  not  prove  feasible;  for  the  process  of  natural  re- 
generation requires  a  much  longer  time  than  the  twenty-year 
period  (usually  from  30  to  50  years). 

Since  i860  thoroughgoing  revisions  of  the  working  plan  are 
undertaken  every  ten  years.  They  are  based  on  the  results  of 
the  past  decade;  the  actual  cut,  as  compared  with  the  estimates; 
ihe  efifect  thereof  on  the  condition  of  the  forest,  etc. 

The  present  working-plan  procedure  dates  from  1869;  its 
characteristic  features  are  as  follows: 

Foundations. — Before  the  working-plan  data  are  secured, 
the  forest  is  carefully  gone  over  by  the  officials  who  are  con- 
cerned in  the  organization  of  the  forest.  This  also  involves  the 
critical  scrutiny  of  the  existing  working  plan  in  all  its  parts. 
This  examination  lays  stress  on  the  division  of  area,  the  de- 
scriptions of  site  and  of  stands,  the  estimates  of  growing  stock 
and  of  increment,  the  results  of  the  previous  management,  and 
the  basic  provisions  of  the  future  proposed  management. 

The  general  forest  description  and  other  "Foundations" 
must  set  forth  clearly  the  site  conditions,  the  existing  species, 
the  silvicultural  system,  the  rotation,  the  rules  of  management,, 
etc.  The  special  forest  description  gives  briefly,  for  each  com- 
partment and  subcompartment,  the  area,  volume  by  species,  the 
character  and  condition  of  the  timber,  and  the  iilcrement. 

The  estimates  of  volume  are  most  carefully  executed  by 
special  measurements  in  those  compartments  undergoing  re- 
generation, i.e.,  in  the  oldest  stands;  in  the  remainder  the  volume 
is  usually  determined  roughly  by  means  of  yield  tables,  past 
experiences,  and  sample  areas. 

For  the  determination  of  the  increment  yield  tables  and 
past  experiences  are  used;  also  increment  borings  on  suitably 
chosen  representative  trees  of  the  stand  (see  Part  One,  Chapter 
I,  Section  i). 

Regulation    of    Yield. — The   yield   is  determined   according 

*  See  "Natural  Regeneration  in  the  Black  Forest,"  Article  VI  of  the  Series 
"American  Aspects  of  European  Forestry,"  "Forestry  Quarterly,"  VolumeXI.. 


IGO  THE    THEORY    AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING   PLANS 

to  Hcycr's  formula  (see  Method  No.  g,  Part  One,  Chapter  II, 
Section  i).  The  basis  and  gauge  of  the  yield  is  the  acutal  in- 
crement. The  regulations  of  1869  prescribe  this  as  the  current 
increment  "as  it  will  probably  be  in  the  next  decade."  Recog- 
nizing the  difficulty  of  an  exact  computation,  and  the  restric- 
tion of  application  to  the  merchantable  yield,  it  seemed  ex- 
pedient to  substitute  for  the  current  increment  the  mean  annual 
increment. 

The   normal   growing   stock   is   calculated    by   the   formula 

r 

nv  =  ;//  X  -  .     Similarly   the    actual    growing   stock  of    uncut 

stands  is  taken  as  the  j)roduct  of  mean  annual  increment,  age, 
and  density  of  stocking  (in  decimals). 

More  than  the  increment  is  to  be  cut  if  the  growing  stock  is 
in  excess  of  the  normal,  and  the  cutting  thereof  is  silviculturally 
and  economically  advisable.  Less  than  the  increment  is  to  be 
cut  if  the  growing  stock  is  less  than  the  normal.  The  more 
rapidly  in  the  latter  case  the  growing  stock  can  be  raised  to 
normal  by  a  saving  of  the  increment,  the  better  it  is,  pro\idcd 
that  no  substantial  economic  losses  or  silvicultural  errors  are 
caused  thereby;  in  no  case  is  the  period  of  equalization  to  be 
longer  than  the  rotation. 

With  due  regard  to  these  principles  the  annual  cut  is  to  be 
fixed  according  to  the  local  economic  and  silvicultural  necessi- 
ties (emphatically  including  the  wishes  of  the  owner),  not  for- 
getting the  desirability,  especially  in  forests  owned  corporately 
■or  communally,  of  a  steady  annual  yield:  violent  fluctuations 
in  the  yield  react  adversely  on  the  owner's  opinion  of  the 
working  plan.  A  gradual  augmenting  of  the  yield  will  suit  the 
owner  far  better  than  a  sudden  increase  followed  by  a  slump. 
Furthermore,  it  must  be  remembered  that  in  almost  excry 
decade  there  are  unforeseen  contingencies  and  demands  for 
timber  which  necessitate  additional  cuttings,  in  excess  of  the 
annual  cut  as  fixed;  wherefore,  in  case  of  doubt,  the  allowed 
annual  cut  .should  be  set  somewhat  lower  than  is  mathe- 
matically necessary. 


THE   THEORY   AND   PR.\CTICE   OF   WORKING  PLANS  167 

The  allowed  annual  cut  in  coppice  and  coppice  with  stand- 
ards is  solely  by  area  and  not  by  volume. 

Statistical  Record  has,  since  1869,  been  in  intimate  conjunc- 
tion with  forest  organization  so  as  to  have  systematic  data  on 
conditions  and  results,  to  simplify  the  working-plan  documents 
and  to  be  applied  as  precedents,  good  or  bad. 

The  \ital  statistical  records  are:  The  history  of  the  particu- 
lar administrative  unit  (origin,  composition,  status,  etc.);  the 
description  of  the  forest  according  to  the  subheads:  forested 
area,  topography,  management,  forest  utilization,  logging 
methods,  forest  protection,  the  chase,  money  returns,  etc. 

These  data  are  compiled  for  the  first  time  by  the  adminis- 
trative officers  of  a  forest,  but  the  continuation  and  supplement- 
ing thereof  is  done  by  the  forest  organizer  at  revision  of  the 
working  plan. 

VI.  Alsace-Lorraine 

These  provinces  conquered  from  the  French  in  1870-71  con- 
tain the  major  part  of  the  Vosges  Mountains,  a  long  fine  of  lesser 
ranges  flanking  the  Rhine  on  the  west.  Together  they  have 
an  area  of  3,584,711  acres,  of  which  1,086,385  acres,  or  30.31 
per  cent,  are  forested. 

The  topography  is  rolHng,  becoming  mountainous  in  the 
southern  portion  of  the  Vosges.  The  species  correspond  closely 
to  the  topography:  coppice  hardwoods  and  Scotch  pine  in  the 
more  level  portions;  fir  and  beech  and  some  spruce  in  the 
mountains,  with  oak  on  the  foothills. 

The  road  development  and  the  timber  markets  of  these 
provinces  are  rapidly  approaching  the  same  degree  of  perfection 
as  already  exists  in  the  neighboring  state  of  Baden. 

When  Germany  gained  control  of  these  pro\dnces  in  187 1  it 
became  necessary  at  once  to  have  provisional  working  plans  for 
each  administrative  unit.  These  were  made  by  the  adminis- 
trative officer  in  charge  of  the  forest,  passed  upon  by  the  in- 
specting (district)  officer,  and  finally  approved  by  the  minister. 


1G8  THE    THEORY   AND   PRACTICE   OF   ^VORKI^•G   PLANS 

The  essentials  of  these  provisional  plans  are  the  division  of  area, 
plan  for  roads  and  trails,  determination  of  the  method  of  man- 
agement and  of  the  silvicultural  system,  fixation  of  the  rotation, 
etc. 

As  soon  as  possible  following  thereupon,  roguhir  working 
plans  were  constructed,  based  on  these  provisional  plans.  Re- 
vised plans  are  also  prescribed  at  the  expiration  of  each  twenty- 
year  period,  after  substantial  changes  in  area  or  growing  stock, 
and  in  cases  of  transition  as  from  high  forest  to  coppice  and 
vice  versa. 

The  regulations  of  1904  lay  stress  on  the  following  features 
of  forest  organization.* 

Division  of  Area. — The  segregation  of  compartments  is  done 
in  conjunction  with  the  la}'ing  out  of  the  logging  and  wagon 
roads  and  the  trails.  The  area  in  coniferous  stands  is  not  to 
exceed  24.70  to  37.05  acres,  in  hardwood  stands  from  37.05  to 
49.40  acres.  For  coppice  and  coppice  with  standards  the  forest 
is  divided  into  annual  cutting  areas;  for  there  the  regulation  is 
by  area  alone.  In  communal  forests  one-quarter  of  the  area 
is  set  aside  as  reserve,  dating  from  the  ordinances  of  Colbert 
in  1669,  which  provide  that  in  forests  owned  by  the  church, 
or  alienated  in  mortmain,  or  owned  by  communities  or  by 
parishes,  one-fourth  of  the  area  is  to  be  reserved  from  cutting; 
the  balance  to  be  divided  into  regular  cuts  ("coupes  regulees''). 

There  are  no  binding  prescriptions  for  the  division  into 
subcompartments.  In  larger  forests  with  various  species  the 
minimum  size  is  to  be  2.47  acres  (one  hectare).  For  segrega- 
tion on  the  basis  of  age  differences  or  differences  in  density  of 
stocking,  a  minimum  of  4.94  acres  suffices.  Subcompartments 
are  segregated  only  if  the  area  requires  distinctive  treatment. 
Stands  in  process  of  regeneration  are  to  be  segregated  down  to 
a  minimum  size  of  2.47  acres. 

The    subcompartments    are    indicated    on    the    ground    by 

*  "Vorsrhriften  fijr  die  Aiifstclliing  und  Revision  dt-r  Forstbetriebscin- 
richtunRswcrkc,"  Strassl)urj;,  1904. 


THE   THEORY  AND   PIL\CTICE   OF  WORKING  PLANS  169 

means  of  stakes  and  ditches  at  the  corners  and  are  entered  in 
the  maps. 

Maps:  Field  surveys  are  usually  confined  to  interior  lines, 
since  reliable  geodetic  maps  are  available  for  both  provinces. 
The  forest  map  is  usually  on  a  scale  of  i  :  25,000  and  shows  the 
species  by  different  colors.  The  cutting  areas  are  indicated  on 
the  map  for  the  I  and  II  period — i.e.,  for  the  next  forty  years — 
by  means  of  cross  hatching,  unbroken  hues  for  the  I  period, 
broken  Hnes  and  dots  for  the  II  period. 

Forest  Description  is  to  be  short  and  confined  to  the  charac- 
teristic features  such  as  status,  boundaries,  surveys,  etc.;  stand 
and  site  conditions;  the  occurrence  and  interrelation  of  the 
chief  species;  past  management  and  results;  future,  intended 
management,  especially  species,  silvicultural  systems,  rotations, 
formation  of  cutting  series,  regenerative  methods,  roads,  mar- 
kets, by-products,  the  chase,  etc. 

Regulation  of  Yield. — The  criterion  of  yield  is  the  normal 
periodic  cutting  area.  If  the  same  rotation  applies  throughout 
the  forest  this  area  =  the  total  area  of  the  forest  X  20  -t-  the 
rotation.  Where  there  are  several  rotations,  the  normal  peri- 
odic cutting  area  is  determined  for  each  species  according  to  the 
ratio  of  the  period  to  the  rotation.  The  total  cutting  area  is 
then  secured  by  adding  together  those  of  each  species. 

Stands  of  the  I  period  in  which  regeneration  cuttings  have 
begun  are  entered  with  reduced  areas  in  proportion  to  the  per- 
centage of  the  stand  removed.  A  distribution  of  cutting  areas 
for  the  III,  IV,  V,  and  VI  periods  is  obsolete;  these  stands  and 
their  areas  are  merely  entered  in  the  column  headed  "later 
periods."  In  deciding  on  stands  for  the  I  and  II  period  especial 
regard  is  paid  to  age  and  thriftiness,  and,  in  coniferous  stands, 
on  the  formation  of  small  cutting  series. 

The  period  method,  strictly  speaking,  is  therefore  no  longer 
used  in  Alsace-Lorraine. 

The  long  period  of  regeneration — often  30  to  50  years — re- 
quires th'^  assignment  of  stands  for  two  periods — 40  years—  in 
advance.    The   stands   inte  ided   for   cutting  in  the  I    and  II 


170  THE   THEORY  AND  PR.\CTICE  OF  WORKING  PLANS 

period  are  usually  calipered;  those  of  the  II  period,  if  suffi- 
ciently uniform,  may  be  estimated  by  means  of  sample  areas; 
thereto  must  be  added  the  increment  calculated  to  the  middle 
of  each  [jeriod. 

The  volume  of  the  allowed  annual  cut  is  i  20  of  the 
period  volume  calculated  separately  by  species.  In  communal 
forests  one-fourth  of  the  allowed  cut  is  to  be  subtracted  (sec 
above). 

In  selection  stands  the  yield  is  determined  from  the  actual 
increment  and  the  relation  of  the  actual  to  the  normal  growing 
stock,  according  to  Heyer's  formula  (Method  No.  9,  Part  One, 
Chapter  II,  Section  i).  In  order  to  determine  the  actual  grow- 
ing stock,  all  the  trees  above  3H  inches  (8  centimetres)  in  di- 
ameter are  calipered.  The  actual  increment  is  determined  by 
increment  borings  of   trees  of  various  diameter   classes;    the 

ri 
normal  increment  according  to  the  formula^  ,  where  /  =  the  mean 

annual  increment.  The  number  of  years  in  which  the  excess 
or  deficit  of  the  growing  stock  is  to  be  taken  up  is  determined 
for  each  individual  case  according  to  the  particular  circum- 
stances. The  cutting  cycle  (period  between  cuts)  is  not  to  be 
placed  too  high :  usually  7  to  9  years. 

Planting  and  Road  Plans  are  to  form  a  part  of  cver>'  working 
plan.  The  jjlanting  plan  embraces  not  only  the  methods  of 
artificial  planting,  of  nursery  practice,  and  the  source  of  plant 
material,  but  also  the  care  of  cutting  areas  and  of  young  plan- 
tations. 

Revisions  of  the  Working  Plan  are  to  take  place  in  the  middle 
of  the  20-year  period.  The  kind  and  degree  of  the  revision  to 
be  undertaken  follows  from  the  demands  made  of  the  plans  and 
the  changes  which,  through  the  methods  of  management  pur- 
sued or  through  outside  influences,  have  occurred  during  the 
first  half  of  the  working  period  do  years).  At  the  end  of  the 
working  period  (20  years)  an  entirely  new  working  plan  is  drawn 
up  (see  above). 

The  essential  points  to  be  considered  in  revision  are :  Changes 


THE  THEORY  AXD  PR.A.CTICE   OF  WORKING  PLANS  171 

in  area,  the  actual  annual  cut  as  compared  with  the  allowed 
annual  cut  as  regulated,  the  comparison  of  the  volume  yield  of 
stands  cut  over  with  the  estimated  volume  thereof,  the  unfore- 
seen cuttings  not  provided  for  in  the  plan,  the  yield  from  thin- 
nings, the  execution  and  cost  of  plantings  and  sowings,  the 
changes  in  servitudes,  the  relation  of  by-products  to  the  scheme 
of  management,  the  completion  of  road  and  trail  building,  etc. 


SECTION   TWO 
FR.\NCE 


The  total  area  of  France  is  132,492,776  acres,  of  which  * 
18.17  per  cent  are  covered  with  forests:  5,187,000  acres,  or  77 
per  cent,  hardwoods;  1,583,270  acres,  or  23  per  cent,  coni- 
fers. Of  these  6,770,270  acres  the  State  forests  comprise  only 
12  per  cent;  the  communal  forests  under  State  management, 
20.2  per  cent. 

The  forests  of  France  proper  may  be  divided  roughly  into 
(i)  plain  and  (2)  mountain  forests.  Under  (i)  may  be  included 
the  Parisienne  zone,  the  Gironde,  the  Provenfale;  under  (2)  the 
Vosges,  Jura,  Alpes,  Plateau  Central,  and  the  Pyrenees. f  Cor- 
responding to  the  topography  the  chief  species  are  either  oak, 
beech,  birch,  elm,  chestnut,  and  pine,  or,  in  the  mountains,  fir, 
spruce,  pine,  larch,  and  beech.  La  Savoie  is  the  only  region 
of  France  where  the  spruce  dominates  in  the  forests.  In  the 
Pyrenees  and  along  the  Mediterranean  coast  species  are  found 
distinctive  of  the  region,  such  as  hook  pine,  d'Alep  pine,  mari- 
time pine,  cork  oak,  live  oak,  etc. 

The  timber  markets  of  France,  while  not  so  intensely  de- 
veloped as  those  of  Germany,  are  still  ahnost  as  omnivorous  as 

*  From  Hiiffel:  "Economie  Forestiere." 

t  For  further  details  see  Article:  "European  Study  for  Foresters"  by 
A.  B.  Recknagel  and  Theodore  S.  Woolsey,  Jr.;  "Forestry  Quarterly,"  Vol- 
ume X.,  No.  3. 


those  of  the  neighbor  State  on  the  east  because  of  the  relatively 
smaller  per  cent  of  forest  land.* 

The  methods  of  forest  organization  in  France  are  in  striking 
contrast  to  those  in  Gemiany.  The  conditions  of  forest  owner- 
ship have  strongly  inlluenced  French  forest  organization  or 
"Amenagement,"  as  it  is  called.  Hitherto  it  has  been  gener- 
ally assumed  that  privately  owned  forests  are  not  suited  to  a 
sustained  yield  management.  It  was  thought  that  the  difficulty 
of  foretelling  future  needs  and  the  uncertainty  of  predicting 
yields  were  in  contravention  to  the  basic  principles  of  forest 
management  for  private  ends  and  that,  furthermore,  the  grow- 
ing of  timber,  especially  of  the  larger  sizes,  is  primarily  the  duty 
of  the  state  and  of  the  communities.  These  views  coincided 
with  the  actual  conditions  of  forest  ownership:  in  the  forests 
owned  by  the  state  high  forest  is  the  rule  with  a  high  rotation;! 
the  forests  owned  communally  are  usually  coppice  with  stand- 
ards; and  tbj  forests  privately  owned,  straight  coppice.  But 
of  late  conditions  have  changed  substantially:  the  increased 
prices  of  forest  products  and  the  decreased  interest  rate  have 
made  the  growing  of  the  larger  sizes  of  timber  profitable  also 
for  the  private  owner. 

The  chief  features  of  French  forest  organization  arc  the 
division  of  area,  the  methods  of  determining  the  yield,  the  dis- 
tribution of  the  periodic  cutting  areas,  and  the  determination 
of  the  allowed  annual  cut. 

Division  of  Area. — The  state  forests  and  the  forests  under 
state  control  are  divided  into  series.  These  series  are  adjacent 
forest  areas  with  uniform  market  conditions  and  a  sustained 
yield;  they  often  coincide  with  the  ranger  district  (triages). 
"By  a  series  is  understood  a  portion  of  the  forest,  intended  to 
be  covered  by  a  special  plan  of  utilization  and  consequently  to 
furnish  a  series  of  annual  cutting  areas."  t 

The  series  arc  subdivided  into  sections.     "By  a  section  is 

•  In  France  18.17;   25.88  per  cent  in  Germany. 

t  140,  160,  2CX),  and  even  240  years. 

JTassy:  "£tudes  sur  ramenagement  des  forets." 


THE   THEORY  AND  PRACTICE   OF   WORKING  PLANS  173 

understood  a  portion  of  the  forest  distinct  from  the  rest  by  the 
method  of  management"  (coppice,  regular  high  forest,  selection 
high  forest,  etc.)-  Accordingly,  the  segregation  into  sections 
is  based,  preferably,  on  the  method  of  management  (regime) 
and  on  the  silvicultural  system  (mode  de  traitement). 

The  series  are  further  divided  into  periodic  cutting  areas 
called  "affectations." 

The  division  by  silvical  units,  i.e.,  stands,  is  called  the  par- 
celle.  These  parcelles  are  the  basis  of  the  whole  forest  organiza- 
tion and  of  the  course  of  the  management.  In  each  forest  dis- 
trict (canton)  those  portions  are  to  be  segregated  which  differ 
in  species  or  in  age,  or  in  site,  exposure,  growth  or  density 
of  stand,  in  such  a  way  that  each  portion  or  parcelle  can  be 
handled  identically  throughout.  In  the  records  the  parcelles 
are  classed  as  divisions  if  they  are  permanent,  as  subdivisions  if 
only  temporary.  The  parcelles  are  marked  by  stones  at  the 
intersections  of  the  boundary  lines;  the  boundaries  themselves 
by  narrow  cleared  lines  or  by  signs. 

The  forest  description  of  the  individual  parcelles  is  accord- 
ing to  the  following  form.* 

Column    I.    Cantons,  i.e.,  forest  district,  or  block. 
2.    Divisions  and  subdivisions. 

3  /  Volume  j  subdivisions. 

4  \  Contents  of  the    I  divisions. 

5.  Site  and  elevation. 

6.  Exposure. 

7.  Slope. 

8.  Soil. 

9.  Percentage  of  each  species  in  the  mixture. 

10.  Age. 

11.  Character  of  the  stand. 

12.  Growth. 

13.  Remarks. 

Method  of  Determining  the  Yield.— The  yield  is  determined 
*  Called  "Etat  descriptif  des  divisions  et  subdivisions." 


174  THE    THEORY    AND    PRACTICE    OF    WORKING    PLANS 

by  the  area  period  method  as  appears  from  the  follo\ving  tab- 
ulated form  for  working  plans.* 

Column    I.   Number  of  the  affectation. 

2.  Names  of  the  cantons. 

3.  Divisions  and  subdivisions. 

4. )  .        ...  f  .L    ^  subdivisions. 

-Area  m  hectares  of  the     ,.   .  . 

5.  ^  /  divisions. 

6.  Site,  exposure,  soil. 

7.  Percentage  of  each  species. 

8.  Density  and  growth  of  the  stand. 
9 1  (present. 

10  i  iat  the  time  of  cutting. 

Ill  \  final  cuttings  \  ordinary. 

12  ^  '  in  hectares      (extraordinary. 

13  Thinnings,  in  hectares. 
'4     II  period  •  ^"^^  cuttings    \  ordinary. 

>  in  hectares        '  extraordinary. 
Thinnings,  in  hectares. 

17  ',^       .1         •         .    ,  ^  fmal. 
'  ;III  period  cuttings,  in  hectares  .   .  .      . 

18  ^  '  thinnings. 

10/    ,,        .    ,         .         .    ,  Uinal. 

^  i"  I\    period  cuttings,  in  hectares",   .  .     . 

20  )  '  thinnings. 

21  /-.         .    ,  .  .     ,  \  tinal. 
A    jxTiod  cuttings,  in  hectares",   ,. 


22 


21  I    .^        .    ,         .         .    ,  ^  final. 

.  \  1  period  cuttings,  in  hectares  ,    ,  . 
24  '  '  thinnings. 


Remark; 


The  number  and  length  of  the  periods  vary  with  the  species 
and  the  locality.  For  oak  in  central  France  eight  periods  of  25 
years  each  are  formed;  for  beech  usually  sLx  periods  of  20  years 
each;  for  fir  four  or  five  or  more  periods  of  30  years  each.     The 

*  Reglemcnt  Rt-neral  dcs  exploitations  par  pcriodc  pendant  la  premiere 
revolution  (revolution  equals  rotation).  See  also  Methode  dc  Masson  and 
Methodc  dc  1883  (French  M  .thod),  Nos.  t,  and  10,  respectively,  Part  One, 
Chapter  II,  Section  I. 


THE   THEORY  AND  PIL\CTICE   OF  WORKING  PLANS  175 

approval  of  the  period  number  and  length  requires  the  approval 
of  the  minister.* 

The  rotation  age  is  only  fixed  tentatively  "without  attempt- 
ing to  fix  it  definitely  by  applying  experiences  whose  value  is 
often  only  specious."  f 

For  the  state  forests  a  rotation  age  is  chosen  which  corre- 
sponds to  the  maximum  possible  yield  of  the  most  useful  classes 
of  materials.  This  has  resulted  in  a  conservative  tendency 
showing  itself  in  the  present  conditions  of  the  forests  of  France 
and  of  Alsace-Lorraine.  In  general  the  adopted  rotations  are 
distributed  as  follows : 


Rotation    Age 


Under  loo  years 


loo-iso  years  150-200  years 


Reg.  high  forest  .  !35.7%  of  total  area  43.1%  of  total  area 
Select,  high  forest' I  9.8%  of  total  area  43.7%  of  total  area 


21.2%  of  total  area 
46.5%  of  total  area 


Distribution  of  the  Periodic  Cutting  Areas. — This  is  the  most 
characteristic  feature  of  French  forest  organization.  The 
periodic  cutting  areas  are  to  be  so  arranged  that  they  comprise 
the  area  of  each  period  without  a  break  or  interrupting  area  of 
another  period.  This  is  in  direct  contradiction  to  the  aim  of 
the  German  forest  organization,  particularly  of  the  Saxon.  The 
reasons  given  for  this  distribution  are  simplicity  in  regeneration 
cuttings;  of  regularity  of  formation  of  the  periodic  cutting  areas 
with  their  narrow  side  toward  the  prevailing  storm  direction 
and  bounded  wherever  possible  by  roads.  Tassy  in  his  "  Etudes 
sur  I'amenagement  des  forets"  lays  especial  stress  on  the  un- 
desirability  of  breaking  up  the  periodic  cutting  areas  into  cut- 
ting series. J 

This  principle  has  been  followed  in  the  working  plans  for  the 

*  Formerly  of  the  Emperor  himself  by  a  decree, 
t  From  a  French  working  plan. 

J  Tassy,  troisieme  etude,  Chapter  IV,  Section  3,  "formation  des  affec- 
tations conformement  aux  regies  d'assiette." 


176  THK    THKOKV    AND    PR-VCTICE    OF    WORKING    PLANS 

State  and  communal  forests.  The  periodic  cutting  areas  are 
systematically  grouped  in  the  maps  and  on  the  ground.  The 
immediate  consequence  is  that  many  stands  are  cut  not  at  the 
time  of  their  maturity,  but  too  soon  or  too  late;  furthermore, 
the  reproduction  cuttings  become  very  large  and  thus,  in  the 
future,  there  will  be  extensive  stands  of  even  age.  Both  con- 
sequences are  attended  with  drawbacks  of  management  (in- 
creased danger  of  windfall,  fire,  insects,  fungi,  etc.).  even  though 
these  are  less  in  France  by  reason  of  the  prevalence  of  the  nat- 
ural regeneration  and  the  predominance  of  hardwoods  than 
they  would  be.  for  example,  under  Clcrman  conditions. 

Determination  of  the  Allowed  Annual  Cut  is  both  by  volumes 
and  by  values.  For  the  cuttings  of  the  first  period  a  special 
cutting  plan  or  felling  budget  is  drawn  up  (Reglement  special 
des  exploitations  pour  la  premiere  periode),  in  which  the  cutting 
areas  and  volumes  are  entered,  arranged  according  to  the  di- 
visions and  subdivisions  and  according  to  final  cuttings  (Coupes 
principales)  further  divided  into  Coupes  ordinaires  and  Coupes 
extra  ordinaires,  and  thinnings  (Coupes  intermediaires). 

The  volume  of  the  Coupes  principales  is  determined  first  by 
caliper  measurements  entered  separately  by  species;  the  volumes 
are  then  computed  from  volume  tables  based  on  the  contents 
of  sample  trees  of  the  various  diameter  classes. 

The  increment  for  the  years  elapsing  between  the  estimate 
and  the  cutting  is  disregarded  in  the  computation. 

Thinnings  are  regulated"  by  area ;  their  volume  is  taken  from 
the  experience  of  the  preceding  decade. 

To  the  determination  of  the  allowed  annual  cut  i)y  \c)lume 
is  added  one  by  values  (Evaluation  en  argent  de  la  possibilite). 
This  is  based  on  the  estimate  of  the  classes  of  timber  which  is 
made  for  each  species  and  for  each  class  on  the  value  according  to 
the  j)revailing  prices  (prix  sur  pied  par  nature  de  marchandises). 
Adding  the  values  of  each  class  gives  the  total  value  of  the 
felling  budget. 

The  regulation  of  yield  in  coppice  and  in  coppice  with  stand- 
ards is  by  area.     Coppice  systems  have  reached  a  p)oint  of  de- 


THE   THEORY  AND  PRACTICE   OF  WORKING  PLANS  177 

velopment  in  France  far  in  advance  of  that  in  other  European 
countries.  The  regulation  of  coppice  dates  from  the  ordinances 
of  Colbert  in  1669.  The  division  of  area  depends  on  the  rota- 
tion age  of  the  coppice  under  the  standards.  In  the  state  for- 
ests 50  per  cent  have  a  coppice  rotation  of  20  to  30  years;  46 
per  cent  have  a  rotation  of  over  30  years;  in  the  communal 
forests  77  per  cent  have  a  rotation  of  20  to  30  years,  20  per 
cent  a  rotation  of  over  30  years.*  The  standards  are  arranged 
by  age  classes  and  distributed  equally  on  the  area.  These 
standards  are  either  two,  three,  or  four  times  the  rotation  age 
(bahveaux  de  I'age,  modernes,  and  anciens,  respectively).  The 
yield  of  standards  is  determined  by  the  number  of  stems  of  each 
class  and  is  usually  accomplished  with  the  utmost  regularity. 


SECTION    THREE 
AUSTRIA 


Austria,  exclusive  of  Hungary,!  contains  74,101,976  acres, 
of  which  24,125,888  acres  or  32.6  per  cent  are  forested.|  This 
puts  Austria  fourth  in  the  rank  of  timbered  countries  of  Europe, 
preceded  only  by  Sweden  with  49  per  cent  forest  area,  Fin- 
land with  46  per  cent,  and  Russia  with  39  per  cent.  The 
ownership  of  Austrian  forests,  which  has  profoundly  influenced 
the  development  of  forestry  there,  is  as  follows:  State  forests 
II  per  cent  of  the  total  area,  communal  forests  14  per  cent, 
church  forests  17  per  cent,  private  forests  59  per  cent.S 

Austria  can  be  conveniently  divided  into  five  great  districts; 

*  For  straight  coppice  56  per  cent  of  the  state  forests  and  76  per  cent 
of  the  communal  forests  have  a  rotation  age  of  20  to  30  years. 

t  The  differences  of  race  and  language  have  resulted  in  all  but  the  po- 
litical separation  of  the  two  countries. 

t  In  Hungary  it  is  27.8  per  cent;  in  Germany  25.88  per  cent;  in  France 
18.17  per  cent. 

§  Data  from  "Die  Holzproduktion  Oesterreichs,"  K.  K.  Ackerbauminis- 
terium,  1907. 

12 


178  THE   THEORY   AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING   PLANS 

these,  with  their  percentage  of  forested  area  and  the  j)er  cent  of 
timber  tracts  over  2,500  acres  in  size,  are  as  follows: 

<~   of  '~c  o{  tracts 

District  and  included  Provinces  fori.«i  irM  ^.soo  acres 

lortsi  area  ^^j  ^^^^ 

Danube  (NicderOstcrreich,  Obcrostcrreich) 34  -  44  ^ 

Alps  (Salzburg,  Tirol,  Stciermark,  Kiirnten,  and 

Krain) 41.8  41 .  i 

Coast  (Kustcnland,  Dalniatia) 29  6  37  7 

Northwest  (Bohemia,  Mahrtn,  Schlcsicn) 29.  i  65.7 

Northeast  (Galicia,  Bukowina) 27 . 7  69.6 

Totals 32.6  54  3 

of  which  nearly  one-half  are  tracts  of  7,500  acres  in  size  or  more; 
nearly  one-quarter,  or  half,  of  the  half  are  tracts  of  25,000  acres 
or  more. 

This  division  corresponds  fairl\-  well  with  the  general  tojiog- 
raphy  and  the  forest  conditions.  The  Alps  and  the  northeast 
districts  (Carpathians)  comprise  tremendous  mountain  ranges; 
the  Alps  continue  in  diminished  form  through  the  coast  district 
to  the  southeast  and  break  down  northward  into  the  rolling 
plains  and  foothills  of  the  Danube  district,  this  foothill  charac- 
ter is  preserved  through  most  of  the  northwest  district  adjoin- 
ing thereon,  grading  gradually  into  the  main  ranges  of  the  Car- 
pathians, the  divide  of  which  forms  the  boundary  between  the 
Xorthern  Districts  of  Austria  and  Hungary. 

The  coniferous  species  in  Austria  cover  over  Co  i)er  cent  of 
the  total  forest  area;  21  per  cent  are  hardwoods;  the  balance 
of  19  per  cent  are  mixed  stands.  Spruce  predominates  with  44 
per  cent  of  the  total  forest  area,  it  occurs  at  almost  all  eleva- 
tions from  the  plains  up  to  timber  line,  only  in  Dalmatia  is  it 
lacking.  Scotch  pine  is  next,  with  7  per  cent  of  the  total  for- 
est area,  chiefly  occurring  on  the  plains.  The  remainder  of  the  60 
per  cent  of  coniferous  stands  are  mixtures  of  various  species — 
fir,  Austrian  and  other  pines,  and  larch. 

Of  the  hardwood  stands  which  cover  21  per  cent  of  the  total 
forest  area,  beech  leads  the  list  with  10  per  cent,  the  remaining 
II  per  cent  are  stands  of  oak  with  beech,  or  hornbeam  with 
beech,  or  of  aspen,  alder,  birch,  etc. 


THE   THEORY   AND   PIL^CTICE   OF   WORKING  PLANS  179 

The  19  per  cent  of  mixed  stands  are  admixtures  of  larch, 
Pinus  Cembra  ("Zirbe"),  ash,  elm,  maple,  chestnut,  etc 

Austria  shows  within  its  boundaries  the  greatest  variety  of 
forest  conditions.*  All  phases  of  vegetation  are  encountered 
from  the  semi-tropical  shores  of  the  Adriatic  grading  through 
the  sandy  and  often  rocky  coastal  plains,  through  the  mount- 
ing foothills  to  the  dolomitic  or  archaic  fastnesses  of  the  Alps 
and  Carpathians,  where  all  tree  growth  is  dwarfed  and  even  the 
lower  stands  are  constantly  threatened  with  rock  slides  and 
avalanches.  The  forest  products  vary  accordingly  from  the 
finest  timbers  with  high  rotations  down  to  mere  fuel  woods  with 
the  shortest  of  coppice  rotations.  Similarly,  some  forests  are 
in  immediate  proximity  to  dense  centres  of  population — as,  e.g., 
the  Wienerwald  just  outside  the  gates  of  Vienna — permitting 
almost  perfect  utilization  because  of  a  voracious  market;  some 
forests,  on  the  other  hand,  are  still  virgin  and  as  yet  out  of 
profitable  reach  of  the  lumberman's  axe.  Gradually,  though, 
the  increasing  prices  of  timber  are  making  accessible  at  a  profit 
even  the  stands  most  remote  from  centres  of  population,  and 
soon  there  will  be  no  virgin  forests  in  Austria. f 

Again,  the  task  of  forest  management  is,  sometimes,  as  in 
Salzburg,  burdened  by  servitudes;  elsewhere  no  such  restric- 
tions exist.  As  a  result  the  market  varies  greatly,  but  in  gen- 
eral it  is  developing  rapidly,  especially  in  the  export  trade 
to  Germany  and  Italy  and  other  European  or  Oriental  coun- 
tries. 

Eighty-five  per  cent  of  the  Austrian  timberlands  are 
managed  as  high  forest,  of  which  one-third  is  selection  forest 

*  See  "Methods  of  Natural  Regeneration  in  Austria"  and  "Methods  of 
Artificial  Regeneration  in  Austria,"  Articles  VIII  and  IX,  respectively,  in 
the  series:    "American  Aspects  of  European  Forestry,"  "F.  Q.,"   Volume  XI. 

t  The  Austrian  government  now  constructs  its  own  logging  devices,  saw- 
mills, railroads,  chutes,  flumes,  etc.;  these  are  used  by  the  purchaser  of  the 
stumpage  for  which  use  he  pays  a  proportionately  higher  stumpage  price. 
I'ormerly  stumpage  was  sold  as  in  America,  and  the  purchaser  put  in  his  own 
improvements;  as  rapidly  as  possible  these  improvements  were  then  bought 
up  by  the  government  and  paid  in  cash  or  in  timber. 


180  THE   THEORY   AND  PR.\CTICE   OF   WORKING   PLANS 

mostly  in  the  "high"  protection  zone  of  the  Alps;  12  per 
cent  are  managed  as  coppice  ;  3  jx-r  cent  as  coppice  with 
Standards. 

Forest  organization  in  Austria  has  reached  a  remarkable 
state  of  {perfection  despite  the  exceedingly  irregular  conditions 
as  portrayed.  The  Austrian  Kameraltaxe  (Austrian  formula — 
see  Method  Xo.  5,  Part  One.  Chapter  II,  Section  i)  dates  from 
1788;  in  the  Tirol  a  volume  period  method  was  in  use  in  the 
sixteenth  centur}-.  From  these  early  beginnings  a  systematic 
forest  organization  has  been  built  up  and  extended  even  to  the 
most  remote  regions,*  comprising  not  only  the  State  forests  but 
also  the  large  tracts  privately  owned.  Practically  half  of  the 
forested  area  of  Austria  is  under  working  plans. 

The  saUent  features  of  Austrian  working  plans  as  contained 
in  the  government  code  of  1901  f  are  as  follows: 

Division  of  Area  begins  with  the  setting  aside  of  protection 
forest  wherever  necessary;    it  is  usually  divided  from  the  lower 


*  For  example,  the  remote  Bukowina,  lying  between  Russia  and  Rou- 
mania  on  the  extreme  eastern  border  of  Austria,  shows  73  per  cent  of  its 
I.I  13.970  acres  of  forest  covered  by  detailed  working  plans  in  perfect  ofx?ra- 
tion.  When  this  province  was  acquired  by  Austria  in  1775  from  Turkey  it 
was  largely — nearly  50  per  cent  of  the  total  area — in  trackless  virgin  forest. 
The  first  work  of  forest  organization,  that  of  making  provisional  working  plans, 
was  completed  in  1818.  About  1850  the  preparation  of  final  working  jjlans 
was  begun  on  the  basis  of  fK-riod  area  method;  failing  of  systematic  revisions 
thes^  soon  became  mere  waste  paper,  the  more  so  since  it  was  impossible,  for 
lack  of  markets  and  of  logging  facilities,  to  carr>-  out  the  cuttings  as  planned. 
In  1875a  thorough  reorganization  of  the  forest  administration  in  the  Buko- 
wina was  begun  looking  to  the  or>cning  up  of  the  hitherto  inaccessible  timber 
resources.  A  section  of  forest  organization  (Einrichtungsabtcilung)  was 
created  in  the  Bukowina  district  similar  to  that  already  existing  in  all  the 
other  district  offices  of  the  empire.  .A  thorough  reconnaissance  (Durch- 
forschung)  was  made  and  on  this  basis  new  provisional  working  plans 
prepared,  beginning,  of  course,  with  the  more  accessible  forests.  .As  the 
data  and  utilization  warranted  it,  these  were  transformed  into  regular 
plans  with  frequent  revisions,  on  the  model  of  those  prescribed  for  the  rest  of 
Austria,  with  emphasis  on  regulation  by  area  rather  than  by  volume,  as  befits 
the  more  extensive  conditions. 

t  "Instruktion  fur  die  Begrenzung,  Vermessung  und  Betriebseinrichtung 
der  Oesterreichischen  Staats  und  Fondsforste,"  3d  edition,  1901. 


THE   THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  WORKING  PLANS  181 

slopes  by  a  trail  following  the  appropriate  contour.  This  pro- 
tection belt  is  always  managed  as  strctest  selection  forest  The 
management  for  the  rest  of  the  area  is  then  decided  upon  and 
the  area  divided  according  to  working  figures  (Betriebsklassen), 
cutting  series,  compartments,  and  subcompartments. 

An  area  with  a  uniform,  silvicultural  system  and  rotation, 
uniform  market  and  constituting  a  single  logging  unit  is  called 
a  Betriebsklasse;  it  is  further  divided  into  cutting  series,  whose 
formation  depends  on  the  topography,  the  species,  and  the 
method  of  regeneration.  A  single  cutting  series  does  not  usually 
comprise  more  than  three  compartments.  The  boundaries  of 
the  cutting  series  are  topographic  or  artificial — roads,  compart- 
ment lines,  etc.  These  boundaries  are  to  be  cleared  of  timber 
to  a  width  of  from  i6  to  26  feet,  in  order  that  a  wind  resisting 
forest  mantle  may  form  along  the  edges  of  the  stands.  Cutting 
series  are  shown  on  the  maps  by  arrows. 

The  compartments  (Abteilungen)  are  units  of  convenience; 
their  shape  is  quadrangular,  2,600  to  3,300  feet  long  and  about 
two-thirds  as  wide.  The  boundary  lines  are  topographic,  cul- 
tural (roads,  railroads,  etc.),  or  else  artificial.  The  last  are  either 
"Schneisen"  and  are  usually  made  6%  feet  wide  (2  metres),  or 
are  "  Wirtschaf ts  Streifen,"  with  the  regular  width  of  16  to  26 
feet  (5-8  metres).  (See  Part  One,  Chapter  I,  Section  2,  "Di- 
vision of  Area.") 

The  division  into  subcompartments  (Unterabteilungen)  is 
based  (i)  on  differences  in  required  treatment  of  which  the  fol- 
lowing are  distinguished:  High  forest  with  clear  cutting;  high 
forest  with  shelterwood  cutting;  high  forest  with  selection  cut- 
ting; straight  coppice;  coppice  with  standards;  forest  burdened 
with  servitudes;  protection  forest,  voluntary  or  enforced  by 
law:  or  (2)  on  differences  in  species  if  the  stands  are  pure:  or  (3) 
on  substantial  differences  in  percentage  of  mixture  if  the  stands 
are  mixed:  or  (4)  on  differences  in  average  age  exceeding  10 
years  in  young,  20  years  in  old  high  forest,  5  years  in  coppice 
forest:  or  (5)  on  marked  differences  in  site  quality  or  yield 
quality  as  shown  by  substantial  differences  in  the  height  growth 


182  THE   THEORY   AND   PRACTICE    OF   WORKING   PLANS 

of  equal-aged  stands:  or  (6)  on  marked  dilTerenccs  in  the  density 
of  stand:  or  (7)  on  need  of  artificial  regeneration. 

The  minimum  size  of  a  subcompartment  is  I'j  acres.  The 
boundaries  are  marked  with  stencilled  numbers  painted  in 
oil  paint  on  the  corner  trees  or  else  by  means  of  symbols  made 
with  a  bark  scratcher;  in  young  stands  narrow  alleys  arc 
cleared. 

Estimates  and  Forest  Description.— As  a  general  rule  yield 
tables  are  constructed  lor  the  various  silvicultural  systems  of 
management,  species,  and  site  classes,  based  on  sample  areas 
measured  during  the  progress  of  the  tield-work.  The  following 
form  is  used: 

Column    I.  Age. 

"         2.  Number  of  stems  per  hectare. 

"         3.  Basal  area  at  1.3  M.  above  ground,  in  square 

metres. 
"         4.  Average  diameter  at  1.3  M.  above  ground,  in 

centimetres. 
"  5.  Average  height  in  metres. 

"         6.  Average  annual  height  increment  in  metres. 
"  7.  Volume  by  timber  classes,  in  cubic  metres. 

"         8.  Increment — current  annual,  in  cubic  metres. 
"         9.  Increment — mean  annual,  in  cubic  metres. 
"        10.  Increment  per  cent — mean  annual. 
These  yield  tables  are  compared  with  the  published  yield 
tables  of  the  International  Association  of  Forest   Experiment 
Stations. 

The  description  of  the  individual  stand  covers  the  following 
phases: 

(i)  Soil  and  site. 

(2)  Species,  percentage  of  mixture  and  general  form  of  the 
stand.  The  percentage  of  mixture  is  expressed  in  tenths  accord- 
ing to  the  area  occupied  by  each  species.  Shelterwood  cuttings 
are  considered  as  preparatory  if  .8  of  the  original  volume  re- 
mains; as  seed  cuttings  if  .5  to  .8  remains;  as  removal  cuttings 
if  less  than  .5  remains. 


THE    THEORY   AND   PRACTICE    OF   WORKING   PLANS 


183 


(3)  Both  the  average  age  and  the  age  Hmits  are  given, 
table  of  age-class  distribution  takes  the  following  form: 


The 


Column    I,  Compartment  number. 

2.  Subcompartment  letter. 

3.  Site  and  stand  quahty, 

4.  Barrens  and  blanks. 
5.^1  stands  1-20  ^  partly  stocked 
6. )     years  old     (  fully  stocked 

7.  II  stands  21-40  years  old 

8.  Ill  stands  41-60  years  old 
rV  stands  61-80  years  old  [  in  hectares. 

V  stands  81-100  years  old 

VI  stands  101-120  years  old 

VII  stands  over  120  years  old 
Total  area 

( Area  in  \    of  the  areas  under  regeneration. 
\  hectares  (    of  the  areas  under  selection  system. 
Remarks. 


9- 
10. 
II. 
12. 

13- 

4. 

15- 

16. 


A  separate  age-class  table  is  prepared  for  each  working  figure 
'("Betriebsklasse,"  see  above). 

Areas  in  process  of  regeneration  are  entered  in  full  in  Column 
14.  But,  if  the  cutting  is  shelterwood  the  proper  proportions 
of  the  areas  appear  also  in  the  age  class  (Columns  4-12)  so  as  to 
show  the  existing  proportion  of  old  timber,  young  growth,  and 
blanks. 

Below  the  actual  area  of  each  age  class,  the  normal  area 
thereof  is  entered  for  purposes  of  comparison. 

(4)  As  index  to  the  yield  the  following  factors  are  entered: 

(a)  The  average  height  of  the  stand. 

(b)  The  sum  of  the  basal  areas. 

(c)  The  site  quality  and  species  occupying  it. 

(d)  The  present  density  in  tenths  of  1.0  =  fully  stocked. 
Stands  are  to  be  considered  fully  stocked  if  the  actual  volume 
per  hectare  corresponds  to  the  volume  given  in  the  yield  table 
for  the  same  age,  site  quality,   species,  and  silvicultural  system. 


184  THE    THEORY    AND    PR^VCTICE    OF    WORKING    PLANS 

(5)  The  volume  of  those  stands  which  are  to  be  cut  in  the 
next  two  decades. 

(6)  The  mean  annual  increment  prorated  to  the  end  of  the 
rotation. 

The  data  on  volume  and  increment  of  the  younger  stands  is 
taken  from  yield  tables;  in  stands  approaching  maturity  exact 
measurements  in  the  field  are  required.  Stands  of  varying  den- 
sity, and  all  under  5  acres  in  size  are  to  be  calipered  completely. 
In  very  irregular  stands  (e.g.,  mi.xed  species,  all-aged,  etc.)  .sample 
plots  are  measured  to  cover  from  5  to  10  per  cent  of  the  total 
area.  The  volume  is  calculated  from  the  calipered  diameters 
by  measuring  average  trees,  so  chosen  that  in  height  and  diame- 
ter they  represent  the  stand  in  miniature. 

These  data  are  combined  in  a  tabular  forest  description 
which  takes  the  following  form  (stand  table): 

Column    I.  Locality    (corresponds   to   "Block,"    Part   One^ 
Chapter  I,  Section  2). 
"         2.  Compartment — number. 
"         3.  Subcompartmcnt — letter. 
"  4.  Soil  and  slope. 

"  5.  Species,  per  cent  of  mixture  and  general  form  of 

stand. 
"  6.  Age  of  stand— years. 

"  7.  Average  height  of  stand — metres. 

"  8.  Total  basal  area — square  metres. 

"  9.  Site  quahty. 

"        10.  Density  of  stand  in  dec  imals  oi  i  .0. 
"        II.  Area  in  hectares. 

"        12  ^  _  ,  .         ,  .  ^  \per  hectare. 

,,  (   volume  in  cubic  metres     )' 

"        13'  r  for  total  area. 

"  14  }  Mean  annual  increment  prorated  \    per  hectare. 

"  15  '  to  rotation  age,  in  cubic  metres  /  for  total  area. 

"  16.  Volume  increment  per  cent. 

"  17.  Quality  increment  per  cent. 

"  18.   Index  per  cent. 

"  19.  Remarks. 


THE   THEORY   AND   PR,\CTICE    OF   WORKING   PLANS  185 

This  is  supplemented  by  a  general  forest  description  for  the 
entire  area,  covering  all  of  the  forest  conditions — natural,  legal, 
political,  economic,  commercial,  financial,  and  administrative, 
including  personnel. 

Determination  of  the  Yield  is  for  a  decade  in  advance.  The 
allowed  cut  is  divided  into  final  cuttings,  thinnings,  and  acci- 
dental cuttings.  The  basis  of  regulation  is  the  normal  periodic 
cutting  area.  If  the  conditions  are  regular  this  is  adhered  to  as 
strictly  as  possible.  Often  there  are  large  amounts  of  over- 
mature timber,  as,  e.g.,  in  the  virgin  forests  of  the  Bukowina 
mentioned  in  foot-note  preceding,  where  with  a  1 20-year  rotation 
the  stands  over  100  years  old  aggregated  116,592  hectares  in- 
stead of  the  normal  (based  on  age-class  relation)  of  33,221  hec- 
tares; an  excess  of  83,371  hectares.*  In  these  overmature  stands 
the  increment  merely  offsets  the  decay  and  their  interest  yield 
on  the  investment  is  nil.  To  substitute  for  them  young, 
thriftily  growing  stands  was  axiomatic  but  required  cutting  in 
excess  of  the  normally  allowed  area.  The  amount  of  excess 
permissible  was  fixed  on  the  following  three  considerations: 
(i)  Not  so  great  that  regeneration,  natural  or  artificial,  cannot 
keep  pace  with  the  cutting,  and  so  imperil  the  continuity  of  the 
forest;  (2)  not  so  great  as  to  depress  prices  by  glutting  the  mar- 
ket and  thus  losing  all  the  financial  advantage  gained  by  stim- 
ulated increment;  (3)  not  so  great  as  to  cause  too  serious  dis- 
turbances of  the  sustained  yield.  These  considerations  were 
met  by  a  sHding  scale  of  area  gradually  approaching  the  normal 
as  follows:  In  the  I  period  of  20  years  1.5  the  normal  area  can 
be  cut  (sometimes  1.6  in  the  first  decade,  1.4  in  the  second 
decade) ;  in  the  II  period  of  20  years  i  .3  of  the  normal  area  can 
be  cut;  in  the  III  period  of  20  years  1.2  of  the  normal  can  be 
cut,  and  thenceforth  approximately  the  normal  amount  only 
is  to  be  cut.  During  the  decade  ending  1910  the  average  an- 
nual cutting  area  in  the  Bukowina  was  3,008  hectares,  or  approxi- 
mately 1.5  the  normal  of  2,031  hectares. 

*"Die  Forstwirtschaft  und  ihre  Industrien  .  .  .  im  Herzogthume 
Bukowina,"  by  E.  Guzman,  Vienna,  1901. 


ISO  THE   THEORY   AND   PR.\CTICE   OF  WORKING   PLANS 

The  rotation  age  is  dctcrniincd  on  the  basis  of  highest  net 
income  (Forstreinertrag)  unless  there  are  cogent  reasons,  such 
as  legal  constraints,  logging  or  market  conditions,  for  keeping 
a  higher  rotation.  Stands  are  therefore  considered  mature,  i.e., 
of  proper  cutting  age,  whose  index  per  cent  has  sunk  below  the 
adopted  interest  per  cent  on  the  investment  an  i  whose  cutting 
will  not  interfere  with  the  proper  development  of  the  cutting 
series. 

In  addition  to  the  stands  thus  mature,  the  cuttings  of  the 
ensuing  working  period  are  to  include  all  very  open  stands  and 
stands  with  unsatisfactory  increment  whose  regeneration  is 
obviously  desirable;  and  also  such  stands  as  must  be  sacrificed 
to  the  proper  progress  of  the  cutting  series. 

The  aim  is,  obviously,  to  approach  a  normal  distribution  of 
the  age  classes.  The  length  of  time  required  in  this  approach 
to  normal  is  fuxed  tentatively.  To  aid  in  this  and  in  the  fixa- 
tion of  the  decade  cutting  area  the  results  of  past  cuttings  are 
reviewed,  especially  in  their  effect  on  the  development  of  the 
proper  age-class  distribution;  this  last  is  shown  graphically  for 
decades  past. 

Based  on  these  considerations  the  decade  cutting  area  is 
finally  li.xed  and  the  volume  thereon,  increased  by  the  current 
increment  to  the  middle  of  the  decade,  constitutes  the  allowed 
cut  for  the  decade. 

In  the  selection  forest  of  the  protective  belt,  everything  is 
subordinated  to  the  protective  function  and  hence  no  sustained 
annual  cut  is  determined,  but  the  allowed  cut  merely  approxi- 
mated from  exiK'ricnce. 

Control  and  Revision  of  the  working  i)ian  which  is  docu- 
mented in  bound  form  and  called  an  "Operat." — The  following 
current  records  are  kept: 

(i)  The  memoranda  book  (" Gedenkbuch ")  wherein  all 
changes  other  than  those  of  changes  resulting  from  the  cuttings 
prescribed  in  the  working  plan  are  entered.  Changes  in  sur- 
veys; in  logging  methods;  substantial  injuries  to  the  forest  by 
man,  climate,  fire,  etc.;   the  progress  of  the  hunt  and  of  fishing; 


THE  THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  WORKING  PLANS  187 

personnel;  statistics  of  volume  >-ield  and  money  returns;  forest 
experiments,  etc.  It  corresponds  closely  to  the  general  part  of 
the  Prussian  " Hauptmerkbuch "  (see  Section  i,  above). 

(2)  The  management  book  corresponds  to  the  Prussian 
control  book,  together  with  the  specific  part  of  the  Prussian 
"Hauptmerkbuch."  It  is  divided  in  two  parts:  The  first  gives 
for  each  subcompartment  (figure  of  control — "  Kontrollfigur  ") 
the  yield  of  cuttings  by  classes  of  material  and  area,  the  com- 
pleted sowings  and  plantings,  and  the  early  care  of  the  stands. 
The  second  part  contains  the  total  annual  cut  of  the  whole 
forest  (Wirtschaftsbezirk)  compared  with  the  estimate. 

(3)  Index  of  changes  in  status,  comparison  of  the  total,  an- 
nual, actual  with  the  allowed  cut  in  volume  and  area;  sum- 
mary of  accidental — i.e.,  unforeseen — cuttings,  of  plantings,  of 
receipts  and  expenditures,  of  income,  etc. 

Regular  revisions  are  made  in  the  last  year  of  the  ten-year 
working  period;  revisions  may  be  necessary  between  times  if 
unforeseen  contingencies  occur,  such  as  large  windfall,  insect 
damage,  change  of  area,  etc.  The  most  important  tasks  of  the 
revision  are:  First,  the  determination  of  whether  the  provisions 
of  the  working  plan  just  terminating  were  observed  in  every 
detail;  whether  and  to  what  extent  the  departures  therefrom 
were  justified;  and  whether  the  prescriptions  of  the  working 
plan  proved  correct,  singly  and  collectively.  Second,  the  cor- 
rection of  the  existing  maps  and  estimates  which  may  necessi- 
tate the  collection  of  additional  field  data.  Third,  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  working  plan  for  the  next  ten  years. 


SECTION   FOUR 

RfiSUMfi 


A  review  of  the  practice  of  working  plans  in  Europe  shows 
that  forest  organization  developed  very  differently  in  the  vari- 
ous countries.     The  differences  consist  in  the  form  of  the  work- 


188  THE   THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  WORKING  PLANS 

ing-plan  document;  in  the  length  of  the  working  period;  in  the 
methods  of  estimating,  forest  description,  mapping;  in  the 
princijjles  and  nomenclature  of  the  divisions  of  area.  These 
differences  arose  primarily  out  of  differences  in  the  forest  con- 
ditions to  which  the  methods  of  forest  organization  were  adapted; 
in  part  also  because  the  various  practices  developed  independ- 
ently of  one  another.  Many  of  the  rules  and  regulations  for 
working  plans  remained  practical!}  unknown  outside  of  their 
immediate  sphere  of  application. 

Despite  these  dilTerences.  the  various  existing  methods  of 
forest  organization  are  very  similar  in  the  essentials  of  working 
plans.  For  all,  the  most  important  task  is  recognized  to  be  the 
designation  of  the  areas  which  are  to  be  regenerated.  For  this 
the  character  and  composition  of  the  individual  stands  is  scru- 
tinized. The  more  unfavorable  the  condition  of  the  stands  is 
in  regard  to  growth,  density,  etc.,  the  more  is  their  early  cutting 
indicated.  At  the  same  time,  however,  all  the  existing  methods 
demand  that  the  stands  are  not  to  be  considered  by  themselves 
alone,  but  in  conjunction  with  the  whole  area  of  which  they 
form  a  part  and  their  treatment  decided  upon  accordingly.  In 
general  agreement  are,  furthermore,  the  methods  of  determin- 
ing the  allowed  cut.  At  first,  regulation  was  by  volume  alone, 
as  fitted  the  irregular  conditions  encountered;  as  management 
progressed,  area  came  to  play  a  more  and  more  important  part 
in  regulation.  Area  and  volume  combined  are  now  the  basis  of 
yield  regulation  in  all  intensively  managed  forests.  In  Prussia, 
Austria,  Saxony,  and  other  countries,  the  criterion  of  \ield  is 
the  normal  periodic  cutting  area  wherever  the  conditions  arc 
sufliciently  regular.  This  area  is  increased  or  diminished  ac- 
cording to  the  distribution  of  the  age  classes.  The  volume  on 
the  periodic  cutting  area  constitutes  the  allowed  periodic  cut 
and  affords,  by  volume  regulation,  a  check  on  the  sustained 
character  of  the  yield.* 

The  consequent  progress  of  forest  organization  is  also  very 

•  However,  under  fairly  regular  but  rather  extensive  conditions  it  is 
considered  sufficient  to  regulate  the  cutting  by  area  alone. 


THE   THEORY  AND  PRACTICE   OF  WORKING  PLANS  189 

similar.     In  the  formula  -  or  a  — ,  which  represents  the  annual 

or  the  periodic  cutting  area,  respectively,  r,  the  rotation,  is 
set  as  a  definite  figure,  as  indeed  is  necessary  for  the  execution 
of  a  working  plan  during  a  definite  working  period.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  however,  the  rotation  age  is  not  a  fixed  quantity, 
when  considered  for  a  longer  period  of  time,  but  a  varying 
quantity  influenced  by  the  changing  conditions  of  management. 
To  recognize  these  conditions  and  to  set  forth  clearly  their  in- 
fluence is  the  common  task  of  all  methods  of  forest  organization, 
a  task  more  important  than  the  form  of  the  working-plan  docu- 
ment and  the  method  of  determining  the  yield.  The  rotation 
age,  i.e.,  the  age  of  physical,  silvicultural,  financial,  or  other 
maturity,  whichever  may  be  chosen,  is  dependent  on  all  the 
conditions  of  site,  silviculture,  utilization,  and  economics,  which 
influence  the  increment  of  the  stands  and  the  value  of  the 
timber. 


CHAlTKIi     II 

IN    AMERICA 
SECTION    ONT-: 

EARL\-   liKGINNINGS 

Working  plans  arc  almost  coincident  with  the  beginnings  of 
American  forestry.  Before  the  control  of  the  national  forests 
passed  over  to  the  Forest  Service  of  the  Department  of  Agri- 
culture in  1905,  the  then  Bureau  of  Forestry,  through  its  offer 
of  cooperation  with  pri\-ate  owners,  prepared  many  working 
plans  for  timber  tracts  in  the  Eastern  and  Southern  States. 
Since  these  plans  were  for  very  irregular,  extensive  conditions 
and  were  generally  intended  for  execution  by  laymen  who  had 
little  or  no  conception  of  the  purposes  of  forest  management,  it 
was  inevitable  that  they  exceeded  the  confines  of  mere  forest 
organization  and  often  consisted  chiefly  of  elaborate  forest  de- 
scriptions and  estimates,  emphasizing  the  silvical  characteris- 
tics of  the  more  important  species,  of  logging  methods  and  rules 
to  prevent  waste.  Actual  calculation  of  the  yield  was  con- 
lined  to  a  rather  crude  diameter-limit  method  which  emphasized 
the  possible  periods  of  return  for  an  equal  or  approximately 
equal  cut.  Little  or  no  attempt  was  made  to  distribute  the 
cut  according  to  the  needs  of  the  individual  stands:  the  regu- 
lation was  by  volume  alone. 

As  working  plans  these  were,  probably,  with  rare  (.■\cei)ti()ns, 
failures;  for  no  plan  can  hope  to  live  that  is  made  from  the 
outside  without  an  adequate  understanding  of  the  silvicultural 
and  economic  conditions.  It  was  a  precocious  attempt  to  make 
a  plan  on  European  models  without  the  basis  of  exact  knowl- 
edge  which   is   the   fruit   of  decades  of   Eurojjean   experience. 

190 


THE  THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  WORKING  PLANS  191 

The  plans,  as  such,  were  valuable  chiefly  for  the  estimates, 
maps,  and  other  field  data  which  they  furnished  to  the  owner, 
and  for  the  volume,  growth,  and  other  silxdcal  data  which  they 
furnished  to  the  Bureau,  together  with  a  splendid  field  training 
for  the  men  concerned  in  the  work. 

It  is  doubtful  if  any  of  the  plans  were  ever  maintained;  for 
no  adequate  provisions  were  made  for  their  control  and  revision 
and,  though  drawn  up  for  decades  in  advance,  they  soon  lapsed 
into  desuetude. 

Some  were  pubhshed  as  bulletins  of  the  Bureau,  and  are 
now  chiefly  valuable  for  the  volume  and  growth  tables,  and 
other  silvical  data  which  they  contain,  and  as  landmarks  of  the 
progress  toward  an  American  forest  management. 


SECTION    TWO 

THE  NEW  RECONNAISSANCE 

On  February  i,  1905,  the  Forest  Service  of  the  Department 
of  Agriculture  took  over  the  charge  of  the  then  forest  reserves. 
The  tremendous  task  of  organizing  the  administrative  machinery 
over  an  area  of  over  100  miUion  acres  absorbed  all  the  energies 
of  the  forest  service,  and  although  the  need  of  working  plans 
was  repeatedly  recognized  by  those  in  authority  and  a  few 
sporadic  plans  were  actually  made,*  nothing  systematic  was  done 
until  the  winter  of  1907-08,  when  for  the  first  time  rough  esti- 
mates of  the  timber  standing  on  the  various  national  forests 
were  compiled. 

The  section  of  reconnaissance  in  the  ofl&ce  of  forest  manage- 
ment was  reorganized  and  its  activities  diverted  from  a  study 
of  the  distribution,  existing  volume,  utilization,  and  management 
of  the  more  important  commercial  species  (so  called  "Commer- 

*  For  the  details  of  this  development  see  article  "The  New  Reconnais- 
sance, Working  Plans  that  Work,"  in  Proceeding  Soc.  Am.  Foresters,  Volume 
IV.,  No.  1.     Reprinted  Yale  Publishing  Association,  1909. 


192  THE   THEORY   AND    PRACTICE    OF    WORKING   PLANS 

cial  Tree  Studies'')  to  the  far  more  pressing  task  of  systematiz- 
ing and  controlling  the  estimates,  allowed  annual  cut.  marking 
rules,  stumpage  rates,  and  sale  policy  of  the  national  forests 
which  then  aggregated  about  175  million  acres. 

The  compilation  of  estimates  from  the  various  national 
forests  were  so  glaringly  inadequate  that  steps  were  immedi- 
ately taken  to  secure  reliable  estimates  of  all  the  forests,  begin- 
ning with  those  where  the  cutting  was  heaviest  and  threatened 
to  exceed  the  proper  allowance.  The  method  of  estimating 
developed  was  that  described  above  in  Part  One.  Chapter  I, 
Section  2,  "Estimates,"  and,  with  minor  changes,  has  continued 
in  use  to  this  day.  This  method  aims  to  strike  the  mean  be- 
tween the  rough  guesses  of  supervisor  and  rangers  and  the 
accurate  but  far  too  slow  strip  valuation  surveys. 

By  the  placing  of  several  parties  in  the  field  each  season 
good  progress  has  been  made  *  towards  securing  fairly 
reliable  estimates  and  forest  descriptions  and  usually  excellent 
maps. 

Based  on  these  field  data,  insuflkient  though  they  are.  sim- 
ple working  plans  have  been  prepared  in  accordance  with  stand- 
ard outlines.     The  outline  now  in  elTect  (1912)  is  as  follows: 

I.  General  Descrii'tion 

(General  data  which  relates  to  two  or  more  sections  of  the  plan,  or  which 
can  be  treated  more  logically  here  than  under  other  sections.     Under  most 
headings  the  discussion  will  be  a  summary  of  important  points  treated  in 
detail  in  other  sections  of  the  plan.) 
Creation.     Area,  past  and  present.     Totals  of  alienated   lands  by  classes. 

(Tabulated  form.) 
Physical  features.     (Concise.     Include  the  information  which  has  a  distinct 
bearing  upon  or  forms  the  basis  for  the  provisions  of  the  plan.) 
Climate.      (Data  not  of  direct  application  may  be  placed  in  the  .Appendix.) 
Topography.      (For  use  in  the  division  of  the  forest  into  working  circles, 
as  well  as  its  bearing  upon  use,  development,  and  administration  of 
the  forest.) 
Geology.     (.As  it  affects  soils,  etc.) 
Soils.     (In  such  form  that  statement    made   may  be  appled  directly  in 

silvicultural  practice,  settirment,  policy,  etc.) 
Land  classification.     Forest,  agriculture,  grazing,  barren,  etc.     (Tabu- 
lated.    Brief  discussion,  if  necessary.) 

*  See  "The  Progress  of  Reconnaissance,"  "Forestry  QuarterK,"  X'olumc 
VIII.,  No.  4. 


THE   THEORY  AND  PRACTICE   OF  WORKING  PLANS  193 

Transportation.  (Railroads,  water,  etc.,  only  as  it  affects  the  administra- 
tion or  the  development  of  the  forest.) 

Settlement.  Present  and  probable  future.  (As  it  affects  the  forest  and  the 
plan.) 

Industries.  Mining,  grazing,  ranching,  lumbering,  etc.  (Only  as  they  have 
a  bearing  on  the  plan.) 

II.  Silviculture 
Timber: 

Estimates  and  detailed  descriptions  of  timber.     Estimates  by  species, 
separately  by  divisions,  blocks,  and  other  natural  or  artificial  sub- 
divisions.    Quality  and  condition  of  timber,  age  classes  if  stand  is 
even-aged,  accessibility,  information  on  logging,  etc.,  as  necessary, 
cut-over  areas.     (Tabulation.) 
Forest  Types.     Composition,  occurrence,  distribution  of  age  classes,  and 
condition  of  timber.      (Concise  general  descriptions,  and  the  funda- 
mental   silvicultural    requirements   and    principles   which    form   the 
basis  for  the  choice  and  application  of  silvicultural  systems.) 
Species.     (Concise.     Treat,   from   the  standpoint  of  the  type  and 
the  stand  rather  than  the  individual  tree,  the  characteristics 
and  requirements  upon  which  will  be  based  conclusions  regard- 
ing the  species  to  be  favored  and  the  relation  in  the  management 
of  each  species  to  the  others  in  the  stand  or  type.) 
Climatic,  soil,  moisture,  and  light  requirements. 
Growth,  form,  volume,  etc.     (Tables  to  be  included  in  the  plan 
if  they  will  be  used  frequently,  otherwise  in  the  Appendix.) 
Reproduction.      Advance    reproduction    present.      Conditions 
necessary  to  secure  it. 
Value  of  wood.     (Properties.     Comparative  values.) 
Causes   of   injury.     Fire,   insects,   fungi,    mistletoe,   smeiter  fumes, 
weather,  animals,  etc.     (Control  under  protection.) 
Increment.     Yield   tables  or  other   data,  or  the  method  used  to  deter- 
mine increment.     Effect  of  thinnings  on  growth,  etc. 
Timber  operations. 
Markets. 

Consumption  and  demand,   local  and   general,   past,   present,   and 
future.     Relation  to  surrounding  forests  if  any.     Cut,  by  years, 
sales,  and  free  use.     (For  use  in  the  determination  of  working 
circle  boundaries  and  in  regulation.) 
Prices.      (To  aid  in  stumpage  appraisals.) 
Methods  and  utilization.     (Methods  in  relation  to  preservation  of  proper 
silvicultural  conditions,  also  as  a  basis  for  costs.     Reasonable  possi- 
bilities in  utilization.) 
Costs.     (As  a  basis  for  stumpage  appraisals.) 
Objects  of  Management.     Watershed  protection,  species  of  timber  and  classes 
of  material,  sustained  annual  or  periodic  yield,  etc.     (State  specifically 
in  order  of  importance  the  objects  which  materially  affect  the  provisions 
of  the  plan.) 
Silvicultural  Systems  and  their  application.     For  each  type.     (Concise  de- 
scriptions of  the  systems  adopted  and  provisions  for  their  specific  appli- 
cation.    Include  brush  disposal.) 
Regulation  of  yield: 

Rotation,  cutting  cycles,  etc.     (Rotation  of  maximum  volume  production. 

Cutting  cycles  as  short  as  practical  considerations  will  allow.) 
Division  of  the  forest  into  necessary  divisions  (working  circles),  areas 
within  which  sustained  yield,  annual  or  periodic,  is  now  or  will  ulti- 
mately be  desirable,  based  upon  markets,  transportation,  and  to- 
13 


194  THE   THEORY  AND  PRACTICE   OF   WORKING   PLANS 

pography.     (This  may  be  done  elsewhere  in  cases  where  such  action 

will  simplify  treatment.) 

Blocks  and  chances  only  when  they  are  actually  needetl  to  assist  in 
rcRulation.  (BI<Kks — main  lo^;^;inK  units  or  groups  of  logging 
units.  Chances — single  logging  units  or  the  subdivision  of 
blocks  necessar>'  to  carry  out  the  management.) 

Annual  or  jx.>riodic  cut.  The  limitation  of  cut  including  sales  and 
free  use.  .Accurately  for  ten  years,  and  appro.ximately  for  the 
periotls  of  the  rotation.  (Include  in  the  plan  only  the  essential 
features  of  the  method  used,  and  cover  necessary  details  in  the 
ApjH-ndi.v.  Blank  table  for  tabulation  of  limitation  and  amounts 
actually  cut.     Sales  and  free  use.) 

Sales.     (By  divisions,  if  advisiible.) 

Policy.  Restriction  and  encouragement  and  location.  (The  plan  of 
cutting  and  specific  application  to  actual  conditions  of  the  preceding 
conclusions  and  of  the  service  policy  and  regulations.  Past  man- 
agement to  be  treated  only  as  it  will  help  in  an  understanding  of  that 
proposed.) 

Stumpage  appraisals.     Maximum  and  minimum  rates. 

Administration  and  other  features.  Six-cial  force  needed.  Costs. 
(Summary  for  use  in  obtaining  total  forest  expenditures  in  Section 
VTI.) 
Free  Use.  (Principles  applying  specifically  the  general  free  use  policy,  espe- 
cially where  it  is  more  or  less  vague  and  general.  By  divisions,  if 
advisable.) 

Present  aivd  prospective  annual  demand  by  classes  of  users  and  of  forest 
products. 

Policy,  restriction,  or  encouragement  by  districts  and  classes  of  products. 

Administration.  Free  use  areas.  Blanket  or  year  long  permits.  Other 
measures  to  promote  economy.  Special  force  needed.  Costs. 
(Summary  for  use  in  obtaining  total  forest  cxjjenditures  in  Section 
VII.) 

Map  or  maps  showing  topography,  types,  classification  of  timber,  boundaries 
of  divisions,  blocks,  etc.,  free  use  areas,  cut-over  areas,  etc. 

Forestation: 

General  relation  to  ultimate  timber  management. 

Areas  requiring  forestation.     By  types.     (Brief  description.    Tabulated.) 

Methods  and  species.     (Concise.     Base  upon  results  of  past  work.     In 

addition  to  sowing,  planting,  etc.,  include  seed  collection,  poisoning 

rodents,  etc.) 

Detailed  plan.     (Five  years,  or  if  impracticable,  omit   and  provide  for 

annually.) 

Areas,  methods,  and  costs.     (Tabulated.) 

Administrative     features.     Special     force     needed.     (Regular     and 
special  work  such  as  seed  collecting,  etc.) 
Nursery. 

Ultimate  production,  species,  and  numbers. 
Methods.     (Essential  features.) 
Detailed  plan.     (Five  years.) 

Species,  numbers,  and  costs.     (Tabulated  form.) 
Administrative  features.     Special  force  needed. 
Map  showing  areas  to  be  reforested,  classified  as  above,  etc. 

Investigations:  (Which  can  be  conducted  inexpensively  in  connection  with 
the  regular  administration  of  the  forest  and  which  should  result  in  prac- 
tical information  needed  in  the  administration.     Brief.) 


THE  THEORY  AND  PR.\CTICE   OF  WORKING  PLANS  195 

III.  Grazing 
n.ange  Management: 

Types.     (Concise  descriptions  of  each.) 

Names  of  important  and  characteristic  forage  plants. 
Accurate  data  on  seasons  of  growth. 
Accurate  data  on  forage  value. 
Acreage.     With  forage.     Waste.     (Tabulated.) 
Carrying  capacity.     Present.     Possible.     Brief  descriptions.     By  allotments 

or  divisions.     (Tabulated.) 
Demand  and  other  local  conditions  in  the  live-stock  industry  which  affect 

grazing  on  the  forest.     Relation  to  silviculture. 
Allotments. 

Arrangement.     (Division  of  the  range  between  cattle  and  sheep,  grazing 
districts,  and  individual  allotments  to  be  shown  on  map.     Guiding 
principles,   or   necessary   comment   in   the  discussion.)     To  secure 
Best  division  between  cattle  and  sheep. 
Full  and  equal  utilization. 

Best  division  of  types  and  early  and  late  ranges. 
Best  division  of  watering  places. 
Proper  silvicultural  and  watershed  protection. 
Number  and  kind  of  stock  grazed.     By  allotments  or  divisions.     Num- 
ber of  permits  by  classes. 
Seasons.     (To  secure  full  utilization  of  the  forage  without  seriously  in- 
terfering  with   the    natural    requirements   of    plant    growth,  each 
portion  of  the  range  should  occasionally,  every  few  years,  be  grazed 
only  during  the  last  half  of  the  natural  growing  period  in  order  to 
keep  the  plant  constitutions  strong  and  allow  some  actual  reseeding. 
So  far  as  is  consistent  with  this  principle,  the  green  tender  feed  should 
be  available  for  the  stock  during  as  much  of  the  season  as  is  prac- 
ticable.    This  is  essential,  especially  for  sheep.     This  plan  may  be 
considered  a  variation  of  seasons  or  a  division  of  allotment.) 
Fees.     By  classes  of  stock  and  season.     (Tabulated.) 
Methods  of  handling  stock. 

Cattle.     (Salting  and   necessary  riding  by  permittees  to  secure  equal 
utilization  of  range  and  prevent  congregation  along  streams  and 
water  holes,  with  resulting  destruction  of  plant  growth  and  poor 
development  of  stock.) 
Sheep. 
'  Size  of  bands. 

Herding.     (Develop  open  quiet  herding  and  avoid  driving  back  to 

camp.) 
Salting.     (Encourage  abundant  use  of  salt,  it  means  easier  herding, 
less  danger  from  poison  and  disease,  and  less  damage  to  the 
range.) 
Other  stock.     (When  special  provisions  are  required.) 
Range  improvements: 

(Permanent  improvements  in  the  improvement  section.) 
Reseeding  either  with  cultivated   plants  or  by  restricting  grazing  for 
natural  reseeding,  posting  poisonous  areas,  changes  or  improvement 
in  stock  driveways,  extermination  of  predatory  animals,  prevention 
of  erosion  by  proper  handling  of  stock. 
Policy  and  administration. 

General  principles  of  policy  not  already  covered.     Protective  and 

ma.\imum  limits,  new  owners,  advisory  boards,  etc. 
Administration.     Extermination    of    predatory    animals,    counting 
stock,  or  other  special  phases  of  the  work.     Special  force  re- 
quired.    Costs.     (Summary  for  use  in  obtaining  total  of  forest 
expenditures  in  Section  VII.) 


1%  THE    TUEURY    AND    PRACTICE    UF    WORKING    PLANS 

Investigations: 

I'ropcT  seasons,  carr>-ing  capacity,  poisonous  plants,  artificial  reseeding, 
demonstration   tests  of   pro|x»r   utilization,   effect   of   grazing   upon 
reproduction,  and  most  efficient  systems  of  grazing  management  to 
eliminate  damage.     Herbarium  with  necessiiry  notes. 
Map  or  maps,  showing  ty|H'S,  water,  fences,  corrals,  tu[X)graphy,  grazing  dis- 
tricts, allotments,  rcs<.rved  areas,  driveways,  or  other  factors  or  features 
which  inffuence  or  illustrate  the  handling  of  the  stock. 

IW    I. ANUS 

Settlement: 

Soils.     (Classification  with  brief  description  and  a  statement  of  compara- 
tive agricultural  and   forest   value  of  each  class  based   Ujwn   land 
values,  forest  expectation  values,  etc.) 
Demand  for  agricultural  lands.     Past,  present,  and  future. 
Policy.      (In  l,  2,  and  3  order,  application  of  policy  based  upon  the  pre- 
ceding classification,  results  of  past  policy,  service  policy,  and  any 
other  principles  as  a  guide  to  e.\aminers.     Practicability  of  detailed 
classification  of  certain  districts  in  advance  of  application.) 
Map,  showing  soil  classification,  if  data  is  available. 
Uses  and  Easements: 
Resources. 

Demand.     Past,  present,  and  future. 

Policy.     (Special  features  which  are  important  by  kinds  of  uses  or  ease- 
ments.    Include  charges  compared  with  value  to  users.) 
Water-power: 

Resources.     Streams,  sites,  power.     Cost  and  market  data  and  stream 

measurements.     (Tabulate.) 
Demand.     Past,  present,  and  future. 
Policy.     (Special  features.) 
Administrative  sites: 

Sites,  rights  of  way,  etc.,  withdrawn,  or  still  needed  and  to  be  withdrawn, 
include  comprehensive  plan  of  rights  of  way  needed  for  future  sales 
and  other  uses  as  well  as  sites  and  rights  of  way  required  in  admin- 
istration.    (Tabulate  or  show  on  map.) 
Administration: 

Special  force  needed.     Other  administrative  questions. 

Costs.     (Summary  for  use  in  obtaining  total  forest  expenditures  in 
Section  VII.) 
Investigation: 

Map  or  maps  showing  status,  location  of  uses,  easements,  water-power  pro- 
jects, administrative  sites,  etc. 

V.  Protection 

Fire:     (By  divisions  or  geographical  subdivisions,  if  advisiible.) 

Liability.     Statement  of  value  of  destructible  resources  by  classes,  and 

for  districts  or  regions. 

Timber,  expectation  value  of  young  growth,  forage. 

Arbitrary  value  per  acre  of  watershed  protection.     (Possible  money 

damage.     Tabulate*. ) 
Hazard  or  risk.     Statement  by  types  or  regions  based  upon  character  of 

stand,  danger  of  fires  starting,  and  difficulty  and  cost  of  supjiression. 

(Should  be  based  in  part  upon  a  study  of  past  exi>erience. ) 
Protection  required.     (Princijjles  which  sum  ui)  on  the  basis  of  liability 

and  hazard  the  relative  amount  of  protection  needed  in  specified 

parts  of  the  forest.) 


THE   THEORY   AND  PRACTICE   OF   WORKING  PLANS  197 

Control. 

Improvements  available.     By  districts.     (Brief  description,  tabulate  if 
map  is  not  sufficient.) 
Communication.     Telephone,  etc. 

Transportation.     Railroads,  roads,  trails,  pack  trains,  etc. 
Fire  lines. 
Look-out  stations. 
Supplies  and  tools.     (Distribution  or  how  they  are  to  be  purchased,  etc. 

Tabulate.) 
Cooperation. 

Adjoining  forests,  between  ranger  districts,  State  associations,  cor- 
porations, individuals,  etc. 
Organization  and  administration. 

For  look-out  stations  and  patrol.     Numbers  of  men  and  duties  by 

districts.     (Tabulate  so  far  as  possible.) 
For  fighting  fires.     (Tabulate  if  possible.) 
Regular  and  temporary  force. 
Cooperation,  labor,  including  users. 
Outside  labor. 
Costs.     (Summary  for  use  in  obtaining  total  of  forest  expenditures 
in  Section  VII.) 
Specific  and  detailed  instructions  to  rangers  based  on  the  above,  and 
resulting  in  its  direct  application  should  be  issued  to  all  forest  offi- 
cers engaged  in  fire  protection. 
Map  showing  types,  topography,  improvements,  and  as  much  of  above 
information   as   is   possible   and   advisable.     Copies   to  accompany 
letters  of  instruction. 

Insects: 

Extent  of  infestation  and  damage. 

Control,     administrative    measures,     methods.     Special    force    needed. 

Costs.      (Summary  for  use  in  obtaining  total  of  forest  expenditures 

in  Section  \TI.) 

Other  damages: 

Extent.     Amount  of  damages. 

Control,  administrative  measures.     (As  under  Insects.) 

Game: 

Policy  and  administrative  measures. 

Investigations: 

VI.  Improvements 

Improvements.     Comprehensive  plan  of  the  improvements  needed.     Loca- 
tion, brief  description,  estimated  costs,  indicate  those  which  should  be 
undertaken  within  the  next  five  years.     (Tabulated  form.) 
Roads,   trails,   telephone   lines;    fire   lines,   administrative   fences,   stock 
fences,   including   the   fencing   of   poisonous   areas   and   bog   holes, 
bridges,    corrals,    dwellings,    other    buildings,    water    development, 
steam  improvement,  dams  to  prevent  erosion,  other  projects. 
Maintenance,  as  above. 
Policy  and  administration. 

Improvement  policy  of  the  forqst.     (Concisely  by  lines  of  work  such  as 

silviculture,  grazing,  protection,  general  administration,  etc.) 
Administrative   provisions.     Special   force   needed.     Costs,   exclusive  of 
the  costs  of  individual  projects. 
Map  showing  all  improvements  constructed  and  planned,  with  a  sufficient 
amount  of  other  data  to  make  intelligible. 


198  THE  THEORY  AND  PR.\CT1CE   OF  WORKING  PLANS 

\I1.  Administration 

Administrative  districts.     Number,  area,  and  relative  importance  or  amount 

of  work.     (Tabulate.) 
Force.     Office  and  field  and  assignment.     Salaries. 

Also  a  brief  forecast  of  future  requirements.     (Tabulate.) 

Permanent,  stalutor>'. 

Semi-jK-rmanent  and  temporary. 
General  administrative  policy  of  forest,     (fiencral  relation  of  im|>ortant  lines 

of  work.     Include  also  points  not  already  covered;    fully  and  briefly  in 

I,  2,  and  3  order.) 
Receipts  and  expenditures  and  results.     By  lines  of  work  for  fiscal  years,  past 

and  estimated  future. 

Administrative   provisions  for  increasing  receipts  or  reducing  expendi- 
tures. 
Map,  boundaries  of  administrative,  or  other  districts. 

A  ppendix 

Material  which  should  be  preserved  in  connection  with  the  plan,   but 
which  will  be  used  infrequently  in  actual  forest  administration. 
List  of  species. 
Details  of  methods  used  in  the  collection  of  data,  costs,  and  areas  covered. 

(Reconnaissance.) 
Tables,  growth,  volume,  etc.,  when  it  is  reasonably  certain  that  they  will  be 

used  infrequently. 
Details  of  method  ior  regulating  yield. 
Detailed  silvical  discussions  upon  which  conclusions  and  principles  outlined 

in  the  plan  are  based,  if  preservation  seems  necessary  or  advisable. 
General  notes  upon  which  the  conclusions  in  the  plan  were  based. 
Inventory  of  existing  improvements,  if  desired.     (Tabulate.) 

The  first  attempts  to  determine  the  allowed  annual  cut  for 
each  national  forest,  necessaril}-  in  advance,  often,  of  any  regu- 
lar working  plan,  were  very  crude.  Nevertheless,  though  based 
on  insufficient  data,  the  attempt  recognized  the  fundamental 
principle  of  a  sustained  yield. 

For  each  national  forest  the  annual  yield  has  been  fixed  since 
1908.  At  first  this  was  taken,  roughly,  as  equal  to  the  current 
annual  increment,  a  crude  calculation  based  on  often  faulty 
estimates  and  insuflicient  growth  data,  but  giving  at  least  a 
working  basis. 

The  allowed  cut  so  calculated  was  not  distributed  on  the 
ground,  since  this  would  have  been  a  useless  play,  but  instead 
a  definite  sale  policy  was  drawn  up  for  each  forest  by  dividing 
the  forest  into  areas  where  ordinary  sales,  i.e.,  of  large  size,  are 
desirable,  areas  where  small  sales  (for  local  industries)  only  are 


THE    THEORY   AND    PRACTICE    OF   WORKING   PLANS  199 

desirable,  areas  for  free  use  of  inhabitants  only,  and  areas  re- 
served as  protection  forest. 

This  rough  division  of  area,  indicated  on  forest  and  district 
maps,  was  further  supplemented  by  general  notes  on  areas  re- 
quiring cutting  because  of  overmaturity,  insect  damage,  dis- 
ease, fire,  and  the  like. 

Minimum  stumpage  rates  for  each  species  and  class  of  ma- 
terial were  also  fixed  for  each  national  forest  so  as  to  prevent 
the  wide  variation  in  prices  obtained. 

It  had  been  the  custom  to  draw  up  special  marking  rules 
for  each  timber  sale  of  larger  size.  To  avoid  constant  repetition 
these  began  to  be  combined  into  a  set  of  marking  rules  for  all 
the  various  forest  types  contained  within  a  certain  national 
.forest  and  these  rules  made  standard  for  all  sales  within  that 
forest. 

These  rules  by  forests  were  then  combined  into  general 
marking  rules  for  the  various  silvical  regions  of  the  West.  This 
work  was  completed  in  November,  1908,  and  the  mimeographed 
marking  rules  as  sent  out  to  all  forest  officers  represented  the 
best  information  then  available  on  the  very  important  question 
of  marking  trees  for  cutting  in  timber  sales.  They  have  been 
revised  from  time  to  time  and  have  been  aptly  supplemented 
by  actual  examples  of  properly  marked  areas  as  an  ocular  de- 
monstration of  how  to  do  it. 

Although  the  section  of  reconnaissance  had  brought  to- 
gether all  the  data  stored  in  the  files  of  the  service  and  built 
thereon  the  first  crude  beginnings  of  a  systematic  forest  organ- 
ization, further  progress  would  have  been  impossible  except  for 
the  active  cooperation  of  the  men  in  the  field.  Realizing  the 
inadequacy  of  the  existing  estimates  and  the  time  which  must 
elapse  before  each  forest  could  be  covered  by  detailed  recon- 
naissance, a  circular  letter  was  sent  to  all  the  supervisors  in 
the  spring  of  1908  requesting  them  to  make  every  effort  to 
correct  and  amend  existing  estimates  during  the  approaching 
field  season  and  to  segregate  the  estimates  by  blocks  {i.e.,  by 
watersheds),  by  species,  and  by  classes  of  material. 


200  THE    THEORY   AND    PRACTICE    OF   WORKING   PLANS 

A  similar  letter  was  sent  asking  the  supervisors  to  draw  up, 
each  for  his  forest,  a  plan  of  sale  policy,  indicating  those  areas 
on  which  cutting  should  be  restricted  or  encouraged  according 
to  economic  and  silvicultural  conditions,  etc. 

The  first  crude  regulations  of  the  yield  (allowed  annual  cut), 
sale  policy,  and  minimum  stumpage  rates  were  also  sent  to  each 
of  the  sLx  inspection  districts  and  the  chief  inspector  requested 
to  reWse  and  amplify  them  according  to  his  local  information. 

In  the  Southwestern  district  (Xo.  3)  Acting  Chief  Inspector 
Woolsey  availed  himself  of  this  splendid  opportunity  to  draw 
up  a  complete,  far-sighted  limitation  of  cut  and  sale  policy  for 
each  forest  and  for  the  district  and  also  minimum  stumpage 
rates  by  forests,  species,  and  classes  of  material.  His  sale 
policy  was  by  far  the  most  complete  of  any  prepared,  the  more 
so  as  he  proceeded  to  determine  the  allowed  annual  cut  for  each 
forest,  separately  for  saw  timber  and  cord-wood,  by  \''on  Man- 
tel's Method  (see  Part  One.  Chapter  II,  Section  i,  Method  Xo. 
2).  Crude  as  this  method  is.  it  was  a  marked  step  in  advance 
and  the  regulation  of  yield  on  the  national  forests  has  only  in 
the  last  year  or  so  advanced  from  Von  Mantel's  "beautiful  sim- 
plicity'' to  some  of  the  higher  methods,  such  as  the  Austrian 
formula,  Heyer's  formula,  and  the  like  (see  Part  One,  Chapter 
II.  Section  i). 

When  the  six  Western  administrative  districts  were  created 
in  December,  igo8.  the  office  of  management,  and  with  it  the 
section  of  reconnaissance,  ceased  to  exist.  So  enormous  had 
been  the  undertaken  task  of  systematizing  and  controlling  the 
estimates,  allowed  annual  cut,  marking  rules,  stumpage  rates, 
and  sale  policy  that  only  the  foundations  of  a  correct  forest 
organization  were  turned  over  to  the  districts  whereon  to  build. 

The  office  of  silviculture  in  each  of  the  districts  took  over 
the  task  and  the  manual  of  procedure  in  the  district  offices 
provided  for  annual  rc\isi(jns  of  the  estimates,  sale  policy, 
allowed  annual  cut,  minimum  (later  standard)  stumpage  rates, 
and  marking  rules,  to  be  submitted  by  the  superA-isors.  combined 
by  the  district  forester  and  in  the  case  of  the  allowed  annual 


THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING  PLANS  201 

cut,  forwarded  by  him  to  Washington  for  review  by  the  forester 
and  approval  by  the  secretary.  The  limitation  of  annual  cut  as 
fixed  by  the  secretary — based,  of  course,  on  reasons  of  sale 
policy — could  not  be  exceeded  without  his  consent.  However, 
this  was  seldom  required;  for  inaccessibility  and  competition 
with  private  timber  restricted  the  bare  possibility  of  national 
forest  sales  to  a  point  far  below  what  the  forests  would  support. 
Thus  in  191 1  the  annual  cut  which  the  national  forests  were 
estimated  to  be  able  to  sustain  permanently,  totalled  3,274,- 
000,000  board  feet.  The  actual  cut  under  both  timber  sales 
and  free  use  permits  was  498,000,000  board  feet,  but  little  over 
15  per  cent  of  the  actual  yield  of  the  forests. 


SECTION   THREE 
PRESENT  PROCEDURE 


The  decentralization  of  working-plans  control  resulted  in  a 
most  unequal  progress  in  forest  organization.  Starting  with  the 
same  foundations  in  December,  1908,  there  were,  in  matters  of 
working  plans,  much  confusion  and  wasted  effort.  This  un- 
fortunate condition  was  relieved  by  the  issuance,  late  in  191 1, 
of  the  forest  plans  section  of  ''The  National  Forest  Manual  "  * 
which  restores  system  and  purpose  to  the  work  of  forest  organiza- 
tion and  is  a  big  step  in  advance  towards  unifying  the  working- 
plan  procedure  of  the  various  districts. 

The  essentials  of  the  manual  are  given  below,  together  with 
its  proposed  application  in  the  Southwestern  district.  It  is 
significant  to  note  that  the  manual  calls  for  preliminary  plans 
to  be  prepared  immediately,  to  be  followed,  as  data  warrant,  by 
a  regular  working  plan.     This  continues  the  work  begun  by  the 

*  '  The  National  Forest  Manual:  Instructions  to  forest  officers,  relating 
to  forest  plans,  forest  extension,  forest  investigations,  libraries,  cooperation, 
and  dendrology.  Issued  by  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  to  take  effect 
November  l,  1911."     Washington,  Government  Printing  Office,  IQII. 


2()2  THE    THEORY   AND   PRACTICE    OF    WORKIXC.   PLAN'S 

former  section  of  reconnaissance  and  emphasizes  the  fact  that 
"the  completion  of  any  plan  is  but  the  beginning  of  systematic 
management." 

There  follows,  in  somewhat  condensed  form,  the  Forest  plans 
portion  of  The  National  Forest  Manual: 

FOREST  PLANS 

The  object  of  the  forest  plan  is  to  systematize  and  control 
the  management  of  each  forest  upon  a  defmite  basis  which  shall 
represent  the  cumulative  experience  and  information  which  the 
service  has  acquired. 

Three  different  kinds  of  plans,  differing  only  in  scope  and 
intensity,  will  be  used  in  developing  the  management  of  the 
respective  forests,  namely,  preliminary  plans,  working  j)Ians, 
and  annual  plans. 

A  preliminary  plan  is  simply  a  systematic  statement,  pre- 
pared from  the  best  information  now  available,  of  the  resources 
of  the  forest,  the  conditions  governing  their  use  and  develop- 
ment, and  the  administrative  measures  to  be  followed  in  their 
management. 

A  working  plan  is  a  similar  statement,  more  complete  and 
final  in  character,  based  upon  thorough  investigation  and  accu- 
rate data,  and  including  a  defmite  scheme  of  management  devised 
for  a  period  of  years. 

The  annual  plan  is  covered  by  the  various  periodic  estimates 
and  reports.  It  constitutes  a  periodic  revision  of  the  prelim- 
inary or  working  plan,  together  with  the  specific  application  of 
these  plans  to  the  business  of  the  forest  for  the  ensuing  year. 

The  subjects  to  be  covered  in  all  forest  plans  are: 

1.  General  administration. 

2.  Silvicultural  management. 

3.  Grazing  management. 

4.  Permanent  imjjrovements. 

5.  Forest  protection. 

6.  Uses  of  forest  land. 


THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING  PLANS  203 

Each  forest  plan  will  provide  for  the  management  of  a  whole 
administrative  unit  or  forest.  No  plan  should  include  more 
than  one  forest.  Where  conditions  in  adjacent  forests  are  sim- 
ilar, or  the  forests  supply  the  same  markets,  these  facts  will  be 
considered,  particularly  in  the  location  of  cutting  area  and  limi- 
tation of  the  annual  cut.  Such  considerations  will  also  be 
necessary  in  grazing  and  protection. 

Where  necessary,  because  of  important  market  or  topo- 
graphic considerations,  the  forest  may  be  divided  into  areas, 
each  of  which  will  be  managed  with  the  idea  of  sustained  yield. 
If  necessary  to  assist  in  regulating  the  cut,  a  subdivision  of  the 
above  areas  may  be  made ;  this  should  be  on  the  basis  of  logging 
units  or  groups  of  logging  units,  the  boundaries  depending  entirely 
upon  topography.  Unnecessary  divisions  will  not  be  made, 
since  they  complicate  administration.  Where  possible  the  lines 
of  administrative  subdivisions  and  those  for  the  technical  man- 
agement of  the  forest  will  be  coordinated. 

Final  responsibility  in  the  preparation  of  all  forest  plans 
rests  with  the  supervisor.  He  should,  in  submitting  the  plan 
for  approval,  transmit  any  recommendations  of  the  officer  in 
direct  charge  of  its  preparation  which  differ  materially  from  the 
plan  as  submitted. 

Since  the  completion  of  any  plan  is  but  the  beginning  of  sys- 
tematic management,  every  effort  should  be  made  to  improve 
plans  which  have  been  prepared  and  to  obtain  the  additional 
data  needed  for  more  efficient  administration. 

PRELIMINARY  PLANS 

A  prehminary  plan  should  be  prepared  as  soon  as  practicable 
on  each  forest  from  the  data  now  available.  The  compilation 
of  such  data  in  the  form  of  a  definite  plan  of  management  will 
systematize  and  strengthen  the  administration  of  the  forest  and 
furnish  a  basis  for  further  extension  and  improvement.  The 
following  points  should  be  covered: 

Under  "General  Administration^'  should  be  given: 

I.  The  forest  force,  based  upon  the  men  required  to  transact 


204  THE   THEORY  AND  PR.\CT1CE  OF  WORKING  PLANS 

economically  ihe  business  of  the  forest  and  furnish  adequate 
protection  during  the  fire  season. 

2.  Division  of  the  forest  into  administrative  and  patrol  dis- 
tricts to  be  shown  on  a  map. 

3.  A  record  by  classes  of  past  receipts  and  expenditures  and 
an  estimate  of  future  receipts  and  expenditures. 

Under  ^' Sihicnltural  viauagcmcnt^'  should  be  given: 

1.  Divisions  and  subdivisions,  if  any,  with  reasons. 

2.  Approximate  estimates  of  timber  by  convenient,  tech- 
nical, administrative,  or  legal  subdivisions. 

3.  The  silvicultural  systems  which  should  be  used,  by  types, 
and  by  divisions  if  modification  of  the  system  on  difTerent  divi- 
sions is  necessary.  Principles  to  govern  marking  drawn  from 
the  best  silvical  data  available.  The  object  of  management  for 
the  forest,  as  far  as  available  information  makes  it  possible,  or 
for  divisions,  classes  of  material  to  be  produced,  species  to  be 
favored,  and  rotation  desirable. 

4.  A  rough  classification  of  the  timber  on  the  forest,  or  parts 
of  the  forest,  in  accordance  with  its  age  and  condition,  showing 
the  bodies  of  mature  timber,  of  thrifty  timber  not  )et  in  need  of 
cutting,  and  of  young  growth;  together  with  a  plan  of  cutting, 
showing  the  order  in  which  the  various  areas  should  be  logged. 
Areas  of  protection  forest  where  no  cutting  is  recommended 
should  be  indicated.  The  approximate  periods  in  which  imma- 
ture stands  will  reach  merchantable  size  should  be  shown. 

5.  Recommended  limitations  on  the  annual  cut  *  for  the 
ensuing  four  or  five  years. 

6.  Data  on  methods  of  logging,  accessibility  of  merchantable 
bodies  of  timber,  costs  of  logging  and  manufacture,  markets  and 
market  conditions,  demand,  prices,  etc. 

7.  The  policy  for  the  whole  forest,  or  divisions  if  achisable, 
which  should  be  followed  as  to  sales,  reservations  for  local  in- 
dustries, and  free  use,  together  with  the  opportunities  for  de- 
sirable sales. 

* /.p.,  dcttTiuinalion  of  the  yitid — si-c  I'art  One,  Chapter  II,  Section  i. 


THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE    OF   WORKING  PLANS  205 

8.  Tentative  stumpage  rates  for  the  entire  forest,  or  divisions. 

9.  Improvements  needed  to  facilitate  the  sale  or  protection 
of  timber.  (To  be  incorporated  in  the  permanent  improvement 
plan.) 

10.  The  approximate  areas  on  which  artificial  reforestation 
will  be  necessary  in  whole  or  in  part,  together  with  the  species 
to  be  used,  and,  broadly,  the  plan  to  be  followed  during  the 
ensuing  four  or  five  years,  plans  for  nurseries,  outline  of  desir- 
able experiments,  etc. 

11.  The  order  in  which  the  various  parts  of  the  forest  should 
be  covered  by  complete  reconnaissance,*  desirable  silvical  studies 
leading  toward  better  management,  etc. 

This  part  of  the  plan  should  be  accompanied  by  a  map  show- 
ing topography  in  as  much  detail  as  data  available  will  allow, 
roads,  trails,  forest  types,  age  classes,  if  necessary,  nursery  sites, 
and  areas  proposed  for  artificial  regeneration.  Much  of  the 
other  data  called  for  may  be  shown  either  on  the  map  or  in  con- 
cise tabulations  with  explanatory  notes. 

Under  "Grazing'^  the  essential  point  is  to  compile  all  avail- 
able information  on  the  range  conditions  in  the  forest  as  a  basis 
for  systematic  range  protection,  development,  and  improve- 
ment.    The  following  outline  is  intended  only  as  a  guide: 

I.  Classification  of  grazing  lands  and  estimates  of  carrying 
capacity,  including: 

(i)  Determination  of  characteristic  ecological  types  or  groups 
of  forage  plants,  each  of  which  includes  certain  combinations  of 
grasses,  weeds,  and  browse.  The  types  should  be  mapped  on  a 
base  map  of  the  forest.  Groups  containing  poisonous  plants 
may  demand  particular  attention. 

(2)  Concise  descriptions  of  each  group  or  type  including 
notes  on  individual  species,  the  seasons  when  the  plants  may  be 
used,  the  relative  grazing  value  of  the  types,  and  the  class  of 
stock  for  which  they  are  best  suited. 

(3)  A    record   in    tabulated  form  of  the  kind  and  amount 

*  I.e.,  estimates  as  described,  Part  One,  Chapter  I,  Section  2. 


20<3  THE   THEORY   AND   PRACTICE   OF  WORKING   PLAN'S 

of  Stock  at  present  grazed  on  the  land,  with  an  estimate  of  its 
present  grazing  capacity,  and  if  overgrazed  or  {X)orly  stocked 
with  forage  plants  the  capacity  to  which  it  nia\-  he  brought  by 
proper  treatment. 

2.  Range  improvements:  Map  record  of  present  and  needed 
watering  facilities,  including  wells,  streams,  springs,  natural  and 
artificial  ponds  and  tanks,  drift  fences,  and  other  inipro\enienls 
necessary  for  the  best  use  of  the  range.  (To  be  incorporated 
in  the  permanent  improvement  plan.) 

3.  The  plan  of  management  should  include,  with  necessary 
maps,  notes,  and  explanatory  data,  provision  for: 

(i)  The  control  and  eradication  of  poisonous  plants. 

(2)  Improvement  of  overgrazed  or  poorly  stocked  areas, 
including  reseeding,  the  use  of  a  rotation  scheme  of  excluding 
stock  from  areas  for  a  part  of  the  year  to  allow  seeding  of  natiNe 
plants,  etc. 

(3)  Fuller  use  of  the  range  by  the  class  of  stock  for  which 
it  is  best  suited,  including  areas  not  now  used. 

(4)  Exclusion  or  reduction  of  stock  or  the  change  of  grazing 
seasons  when  necessary  for  silvical  reasons  or  the  protection  of 
watersheds  for  irrigation  or  municipal  watcr-suppl}-.  Reduc- 
tion to  prevent  overgrazing,  or  erosion  caused  by  grazing. 

(5)  The  better  handling  of  stock,  including  salting,  bedding, 
the  prevention  of  concentration  to  the  injury  of  the  range,  im- 
proved herding  methods,  etc. 

(6)  Improvement  in  range  districts,  range  allotments,  etc. 

(7)  The  extermination  of  predatory  aniiiiais,  based  upon  the 
kind  and  amount  of  damage  done. 

(8)  The  extermination  of  prairie  dogs,  based  upon  the  area 
occupied  and  the  damage  done. 

A  systematic  plan  for  the  Permanent  Improvements  on  the 
forest  should  be  steadily  developed,  extended,  and  impro\ed. 

The  improvement  plan  will  take  the  form  of  a  map,  and  such 
additional  notes  as  may  be  necessary  for  its  proper  understand- 
ing. Rough  estimates  of  cost  should  be  included  wherexer 
obtainable.     The  following  kinds  of  work   will   be  considered: 


THE  THEORY  AND  PRACTICE   OF  WORKING  PLANS  207 

Roads,  trails,  bridges,  telephone  lines,  signal  systems,  perma- 
nent and  temporary  headquarters,  pastures,  look-out  towers, 
fire  Hues,  tool  boxes,  improvements  necessary  for  range  develop- 
ment or  making  timber  accessible,  and  areas  in  which  the  blazing 
and  posting  of  trails  is  urgent. 

Under  ^'Forest  protection'^  provision  will  be  made  for  pro- 
tection against  fire  and  insects,  and  the  protection  of  nurseries 
and  plantations  agamst  rodents. 

A  plan  for  fire  protection,  as  complete  as  is  now  practicable, 
should  be  formulated  and  put  into  effect  on  each  forest. 

The  fire  plan  will  consist  of  a  map  showing  detailed  topog- 
raphy, forest  types,  all  permanent  improvements  which  will  be 
of  any  value  in  fire  protection,  look-out  points,  lines  of  fire  patrol, 
camping  sites,  places  where  assistance  in  fighting  fire  may  be 
obtained,  areas  of  particular  menace  and  areas  in  particular 
need  of  protection,  and  detailed  directions  to  rangers  con- 
cerning fire  patrol,  and  cooperation  with  other  districts  and 
forests. 

Under  '^Uses  of  Forest  Lands''  data  should  be  collected 
showing: 

1 .  Sale  prices  of  agricultural  lands  within  or  near  the  forest, 
including  stump  lands,  unimproved  non-timbered  lands,  and 
improved  ranches. 

2.  Cost  of  clearing  and  stumping  timbered  lands 

3.  Comparative  value  of  timbered  land  for  agricultural  and 
forest  purposes. 

The  location  of  all  uses  which  have  been  granted  should  be 
recorded  on  a  base  map  of  the  forest.  Any  information  secured 
as  to  tracts  desirable  for  particular  uses  should  be  similarly 
recorded,  especially  reservoir  and  dam  sites,  as  part  of  the  in- 
ventory of  the  resources  of  the  forest. 

The  water-power  possibilities  of  the  forests,  including  stream 
measurements  and  the  collection  of  cost  and  market  data. 

All  administrative  sites  should  be  shown  on  the  improve- 
ment map  of  the  forest.  Sufficient  additional  data  will  be  re- 
corded to  show  in  concrete  form  the  system  of  administrative 


208  THE   THEORY   AND   PRACTICE      OF   WORKING  PLANS 

sites  devised  for  the  forest,  including  patrol  and  look-out  sta- 
tions, nurseries,  and  sites  required  for  logging  facilities,  and  other 
uses  in  connection  with  the  sale  of  timber. 

WORKING  PLANS 

A  working  plan  is  simply  an  extension  and  development  of 
the  preliminary  plan,  based  upon  more  exact  data.  Such  a  plan 
should  ultimately  be  prepared  for  every  forest  as  the  need  for 
a  more  systematic  basis  of  management  becomes  urgent.  Re- 
connaissance work  should,  except  in  unusual  cases,  result  in 
working  plans. 

Working  plans  will  be  prepared  first  on  forests  where  the 
demand  for  timber  is  great  as  compared  with  the  supply,  and 
where  large  quantities  of  timber  are  evidently  mature  and  it  is 
reasonably  certain  that  sales  can  be  made  if  the  proper  data 
are  secured.  It  may  be  advisable  to  prepare  special  working 
plans  for  forests  on  which  large  areas  are  in  need  of  reforesta- 
tion. Special  grazing  working  plans  may  be  prepared  for  forests 
where  the  use  of  forage  resources  is  of  importance.  Special 
problems  in  any  other  phase  of  service  work  demanding  careful 
study  may  require  the  preparation  of  working  plans.  Where 
conditions  on  a  forest  differ  widely,  it  may  be  adN-isable  to  cover 
only  the  part  of  a  forest  to  which  the  special  administrative 
urgency  applies. 

Each  working  plan  will  outline  the  general  management  of 
the  forest  for  a  long  period,  usually  a  rotation  in  the  recommen- 
dations on  timber  cuttings,  and  the  management  in  detail  for 
some  such  period  as  lo  or  15  years. 

The  amount  of  detail  in  the  working  plan  will  depend  upon 
the  value  of  the  forest  products  concerned,  the  need  for  inten- 
sive methods,  and  the  certainty  or  possibility  of  large  returns 
within  the  [)rol)able  life  of  the  plan.  On  forests  or  parts  of 
forests  where  the  demand  for  timber  equals  or  exceeds  the 
amount  which  can  be  cut  with  safety,  the  plan  for  silvicultural 
management  must  be  in  much  greater  detail  than  where  the 
demand  is  comparatively  small.     The  requirements  of  detail  in 


5  £ 


S.  w 


i  2 

0>a 


>  :2. 

i'  i 


THE   THEORY  AND  PRACTICE   OF   WORKING  PLANS  209 

the  different  parts  of  the  plan  and  in  different  working  units 
must  be  adjusted  to  the  administrative  needs  of  the  forest  in 
all  lines  of  work. 

When  it  has  been  decided  to  make  a  working  plan,  its  essen- 
tial features  and  the  field-work  necessary  should  be  outhned 
at  a  conference  between  the  officer  who  will  have  charge  of  the 
field-work,  the  supervisor  of  the  forest,  the  assistant  district 
foresters  concerned,  and  the  district  forester  at  his  discretion. 
It  is  particularly  necessary  that  the  general  system  or  systems 
of  management  be  determined,  and  the  methods  for  determin- 
ing the  yield  of  each  unit  be  decided  upon.  Plans  may  then  be 
made  to  secure  the  exact  data  needed  and  unnecessary  work 
eliminated.  The  preHminary  plan  for  the  forest  and  working 
plans  already  prepared  will  form  the  basis  for  this  discussion. 

Field  data  will  in  general  be  obtained  by  special  parties, 
which  as  far  as  possible  should  consist  of  experienced  men.  As 
far  as  possible,  the  data  for  all  parts  of  the  plan  will  be  collected 
at  the  same  time,  if  necessary  by  specialists  temporarily  assigned 
to  the  party.  The  data  for  planting  or  grazing  features  may 
be  collected  independently  when  the  need  justifies  it.  The 
work  will  be  done  under  the  direction  of  the  supervisor. 

As  far  as  possible  all  data  in  the  working-plan  report  will  be 
tabulated  with  brief  notes  of  necessary  explanation.  While 
working  plans  must  be  complete,  every  possible  effort  will  be 
made  to  eliminate  unnecessary  discussion  and  to  put  them  in 
concise  form.  All  detailed  data  relating  to  climate,  geology, 
soil,  growth  studies,  silvical  notes,  etc.,  should  be  placed  in  the 
appendix  of  the  working  plan,  and  everything  in  the  plan  sub- 
ordinated to  the  actual  scheme  of  management  for  the  forest. 

Working  plans  will  be  approved  by  the  forester. 

The  general  ground  to  be  covered  by  working  plans  is  as 
follows: 

Under  '^General  Administration^'  the  topics  listed  for  pre- 
liminary plans  should  be  discussed  with  such  further  detail  as 
more  intensive  study  makes  possible. 

Under  " SilvicuUural  management'^  the  topics  listed  for  pre- 

14 


210  THE    TIIF.<JRY    AND    PRVCTICE    OF    WORKING    PLANS 

liminary  plans  should  be  devclof)ed  with  much  greater  accuracy 
and  in  much  greater  detail. 

To  secure  uniform  data  from  the  national  forests  in  each 
district,  the  district  forester  will  decide  upon  standard  field 
meth<xis.     Standardization  will  include: 

1.  Methods  o(  making  estimates  under  specified  conditions 
to  secure  results  of  uniform  accuracy. 

2.  The  unit  for  recording  estimates  in  both  surveyed  and 
unsurveyed  ground. 

3.  The  minimum  sizes  to  which  timber  will  be  estimated  and 
a  method  of  classifying  reproduction  and  young  timber  below 
this  minimum. 

4.  A  scale  for  field  and  base  maps  and  the  conditions  under 
which  contour  or  hachure  maps  will  be  made. 

5.  The  form  and  character  of  notes  on  silvicultural  ques- 
tions, forest  descriptions,  etc. 

6.  The  principles  upon  which  the  silvicultural  system,  the 
rotation,  the  period  for  which  management  will  be  planned  in 
detail,  etc. 

In  each  district,  also,  to  insure  reasonable  uniformity  under 
similar  conditions,  a  careful  study  will  be  made  of  the  methods 
of  determining  the  limitation  of  annual  cut  under  each  silvi- 
cultural system  which  will  be  used,  and  standard  methods 
established. 

In  the  completed  plan  the  data  secured  under  each  topic 
will  be  summarized  and  the  conclusions  stated.  The  following 
points  are  of  special  importance: 

1.  Silvicultural  systems  based  on  the  most  rciiahlc  silvical 
data  available,  and  upon  careful  observations  on  the  j)art  of 
the  working-plans  ofllcer  {i.e.,  the  forest  organizer). 

2.  A  carefully  drawn  set  of  marking  principles  (marking 
rules)  designed  to  i)ut  into  efTect  the  silvicultural  systems  rec- 
ommended. 

3.  The  ma.ximum  annual  cut  to  be  allowed  during  the  ensu- 
ing 10  or  15  years,  and  the  appro.ximate  cuts  for  each  pericxl  of 
the  rotation. 


THE    THEORY   AXD    PR.\CTICE    OF   WORKING   PLANS  211 

4.  The  order  in  which  the  important  bodies  of  merchantable 
timber  should  be  sold. 

5.  The  order  in  which  areas  needing  artificial  restocking 
should  be  sowed  or  planted,  and  the  acreage  to  be  covered  dur- 
ing each  year  of  the  period  for  which  detailed  recommendations 
are  made. 

Under  "Grazmg,"  technical  reconnaissance  and  special  studies 
should  be  conducted,  following  the  general  ground  covered  under 
prehminary  plans,  but  with  more  detail  and  greater  exactness; 
it  should  be  directed  as  far  as  practicable  by  grazing  experts. 

The  permanent  improvement  plan,  protection  plan,  and  plan 
for  uses  of  forest  land  for  the  forest  should  be  considered  and 
developed  as  far  as  may  be  practicable  in  connection  with  the 
intensive  timber  estimates  and  other  investigations  conducted 
by  working-plan  parties. 

ANNUAL  PLANS 

The  annual  reports,  estimates,  and  recommendations  sub- 
mitted on  the  various  lines  of  forest  work  should  be  based  upon 
the  preliminary  or  working  plan  for  the  forest  and  should  refer 
specifically  to  the  portions  of  the  plan  deahng  with  the  subject 
in  question.  They  should  show  how  far  it  is  feasible  to  apply 
the  plan  to  the  work  of  the  forest  during  the  current  or  ensuing 
year,  the  specific  action  proposed  to  put  its  provisions  into  effect, 
and  the  changes  which  appear  advisable. 

Annual  recommendations  on  maximum  and  minimum  stump- 
age  prices  and  hmitation  of  yearly  cut  should  be  submitted  to 
the  district  forester.  These  and  the  planting  and  nursery 
reports  should  refer  to  the  portion  of  the  plan  deahng  with  sil- 
vicnltural  management  and  indicate  any  necessary  changes  in  its 
application.  Revisions  of  the  cutting  methods  advocated  in 
the  plan  and  of  other  features  of  its  silvicultural  management 
should  be  submitted  whenever  they  appear  advisable,  together 
with  any  additional  data  secured  on  estimates,  logging  costs, 
market  conditions,  etc. 


212  THE  TUFORY  AND  PRACTICE   OF  WORKING  PLANS 

The  annual  grazing  report  and  recommendations  constitute 
a  concise  restatement  of  the  preliminary  or  working  plan  and 
its  application  to  the  business  of  the  ensuing  year.  Additional 
data  should  be  reported  and  necessary'  changes  from  the  plan 
noted. 

In  submitting  the  annual  improvement  estimates  a  copy  of 
the  improvement  map  of  the  forest,  showing  the  plan  as  revised 
and  extended  to  date  and  indicating  the  work  of  greatest  urgency, 
should  be  furnished. 

In  connection  with  the  annual  fire  report,  the  fire  plan  for 
the  forest  should  be  checked  over  and  necessary  modifications 
noted.  The  annual  planting  and  nursery  reports  should  in- 
clude a  current  revision  and  application  of  the  portions  of  the 
protection  plan  dealing  with  rodents.  Special  reports  and  revi- 
sions of  the  forest  plan  as  regards  protection  from  insects  and 
diseases  will  be  submitted  from  time  to  time  on  forests  where 
this  work  is  of  importance. 

In  connection  with  the  current  business  and  periodical  re- 
ports relating  to  uses  of  forest  land,  the  preliminary  or  working 
plan  should  be  steadily  revised  and  extended. 

The  application  of  the  foregoing  instructions  has  been  worked 
out  by  each  of  the  districts.  The  proposed  outline  for  the  plan 
of  silvicultural  management,  as  worked  out  in  the  Southwestern 
district,  follows.  This  outline  is  in  skeleton  form,  so  as  to  give 
an  idea  of  the  bulk  and  character  of  the  plan  in  its  final  form. 
It  is  to  be  used  in  the  preparation  of  both  preliminary  and 
final  working  plans.  When  all,  or  the  majority,  of  the  chapters 
have  been  completed  in  satisfactory  final  form,  the  plan  will 
be  submitted  to  the  forester  tor  api)r()val  as  a  forest  working 
plan.  The  outline  follows  the  instructions  of  the  manual  (see 
above)  that  a  plan  should  consist  just  so  far  as  possible  of  tables 
and  maps.  Most  of  the  tables  provide  for  the  entry  of  records 
in  future  years.  A  two-inch  margin  will  be  left  at  the  right  of 
all  text  throughout  the  plan  for  the  i)urpose  of  allowing  notes 
to  be  made  from  time  to  time.  Tables  will,  however,  extend 
the  width  of  the  page. 


THE   THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  WORKING  PLANS 


213 


The  entire  plan  for  each  forest  is  to  be  bound  in  a  cover  and 
will  contain  only  the  strictly  necessary  information;  all  sup- 
plementary or  basic  data  will  be  filed  in  a  separate  file  for  forest 
plans.  The  forest  plan  thus  bound  will  serve  as  a  hand-book 
of  the  forest.  Two  copies  are  prepared:  one  for  the  super- 
visor's office;  the  other  for  the  district  forester.  It  is  aimed  to 
keep  the  plans  up  to  date  by  penned  notes  in  the  blank  spaces 
which  may,  as  a  rule,  simply  refer  to  correspondence  or  reports 
which  alter  the  plan  or  supplement  it.  Every  few  years  the 
plan  may  be  typewritten  and  all  of  these  changes  incorporated 
in  the  text  or  tables. 


OUTLINE  FOR  PLAN  OF  SILVICULTURAL 
MANAGEMENT 


TIMBER  ESTIMATES  BY  DIVISIONS 


Division 

Sawtimber 
fM.  ft.  B.  M.) 

Cordwood 
(Cords) 

Total 

Notes.— Explain  above  divisions.  Make  reference  to  township  or  section  sheets  if  available. 
Tabulate  estimates  by  natural  divisions,  technical  division  (or  compartment),  Ranger  districts,  oz 
watersheds,  according  to  data  available  and  with  view  to  homogeneous  units  of  management. 


2l  t  THE   THEORY   AND   PRA(  TICE   OF   WORKING  PLANS 


TIMBER    ESTIMATE  IN   DETAIL 
Division* 


Block  t 

Township 

Species 

' 

Tool.... 

1 
i 

•  Handle  subjects  under  Silvicultural  Management  for  each  division  in  ercalcr  or  less  detail 
accordinK  to  data  available  for  each.  A  division  which  is  a  distinct  unit  and  fur  which  a  sustained 
yield  is  desirable,  independent  of  the  remainder  of  the  forest,  may  be  treated  separately  so  as  to  avoid 
confusion. 

t  Or  watershed,  or  ranger  district. 


FOREST  TYPES 
Division 


Type 

Area 

Total 

Sawtimber 
M.  ft.  B.  M  ) 


Cordwood 
(Corxls) 


Notes.— Brief  comments  or  descriptions  of  types  where  necessao'  bi-cause  oi  unusu.i 
L-fcr  to  type  map  if  there  is  one. 


THE  THEORY  AND  PIL-^CTICE  OF  WORKING  PLANS  215 


Timber  Types:  t 


Woodland  Types: 


Description: 


Application: 


OBJECT  OF  MANAGEMENT' 


SILVICULTURAL  SYSTEM  t 


Marking  Rules. 

*  Separately  for  each  division  if  desirable. 

t  State  objects  briefly,  also  species  to  be  favored  and  classes  of  material  to  be  produced. 

j  By  types,  and  by  divisions  if  necessary. 


210  THE    THEORY  AND   PRACTICE   OF   \VURKING   PLANS 


REGULATION  OF  YIELD 


Rotation: 
IhnsioH  of  Forest: 

Annual  or  Periodic  CaU 


REGULATION-   OF   CUT* 

Limitation  of  annual  cut  for  first  period. 

Cuttini?  plan  for  period  by  years,  with  proper  references  to  cutting  map. 
Tabulate  amount  to  be  cut  each  year. 

Unless  forest  or  division  has  been  covered  by  reconnaissance,  it  will  probably  be  necessary  to  confine 
cutting  plan  to  a  few  ensuing  years— 4  to  10. 


Record  of  Regulation — 

Separately  for  Sawtimber  and 

Cordwoc 

Ml. 

Year 

Total  Merchant- 
able Stand 

Estimtd. 
Annual 
Yield 

Limifn 
of  Cut 
(Secre- 
tary's) 

Timber  Cm- 

Surplus 
(+)  or 
Deficit 

(   )  in 

ulated 
Surplus 

Sale 

Free 

Total 

Allowed 
Annual 
Cut  (t) 

(+)  or 

Deficit 

(-) 

•  By  divisions  if  desirable.    This  subject  should  l>c  handle*!  in  greater  or  less  detail  according 
to  available  data. 

t  Based  on  Estimated  Annual  Yield. 


THE   THEORY  AND  PRACTICE   OF   WORKING  PLANS 


217 


Protection: 

Importance  of  any  special  areas  for  protection.     Refer  to  cutting  map  on  which  reserved  areas 
should  be  shown. 


Free  Use: 

Brief  notes  on  volume  of  free  use  business,  past,  present,  and  future;  character  of  material  used; 
locahties,  etc.  Any  exceptions  to  general  poUcy,  or  special  points  of  importance.  Refer  to 
cutting  map  for  free  use  areas. 


Sales: 
Any  necessary  comments  on  sales  policy.    Opportunities  for  desirable  sales. 


STUMPAGE  RATES 
Rates  recommended  with  brief  statement  of  reasons.    Provision  for  future  increase. 


Sawtimber 
(M.  ft.  B.  M. 

Cordwood 
(Cords) 

Poles 
(Linear  ft.) 

Lagging 
(each) 

Green 

Dead 

218  THE   THEORY   AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING   PLANS 


UTILIZATION'  • 

CuUint  Prior  to  Creation  of  ForesU 

Brief  Dotes.     Acreage  cut  over  by  types,  if  possible,     .\mount  cut      Rcicr  to  map  showing  cut- 
over  area». 


Melkodi  oj  Lofgint: 


'  Confine  treatment  of  this  subject  to  brief  notes  summarizing  conditions.     References  to  more 
detaile<j  data  should  be  listed  in  Appendix. 


THE   THEORY   AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING   PLANS  219 


AccessibUity  of  Timber: 

Include  reference  to  improvements  needed  to  open  up  timber  stands. 


Costs  of  Logging  and  Manufacture: 


Markets,  Market  Conditions.  Demartd,  Prices: 


220  THE  THEORY  AXD   PRACTICE   OF  ^VORKING  PLANS 


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224  THE    THEORY   ANT)   PIL\CTICE   OF   WORKING    PLANS 


PLANTING  • 


Ar*u  Sttdini  Rtitockint: 


Character 

Type 

Location 

Area 

Per  cent  of 
Forest  Area 

Total 

Notes. — Make  reference  to  proper  map  showing  planting  and  sowing  areas.     Location  of  areas 
dhouid  usually  be  done  by  Timber  Reconnaissance  parties. 


Summary  of  Results  <"'  Pas:  Planlinc  a  ui  Sovinr. 


Policy: 
Brief  statement  of  character  of  work 


*  Details  of  tabulated  plan  for  a  period  of  years  not  necessary.     Operations  for  ensuing  year 
will  be  covered  in  annual  plan  after  plan  for  district  is  formulated. 


THE   THEORY   AND   PILA.CTICE   OF   WORKING   PLANS  225 


Policy: 


■  Nursery. 


Equipment. 


Area  in  Seed  Beds     

Area  in  Transplant  Beds 
Total  Area    


Capacity — Seedlings 
Transplants 


Proposed  Annual  Produclion 
Species 


15 


THE    THEORY   AND   PR.ACTICE   OF   WORKING    PLANS 


TIMBER  RECONNAISSANCE 


PoftiMU  of  Fortst  Cotered: 


Division  Block 


AiCA  Year 


TitnberUnd       |  Cost 

or  Woodland  Per  Acre 


Porliom  to  be  Covered  in  Order  oj  Importance: 


Block 

Area 

Year 

Timberiand 
or  Woodland 

Cost 

Division 

Proposed 

Actual 

Estimated    1  Actual 

SUvical  Studies: 
Past. 


Proposed 


Refofeslation  Experiments  t 


INVESTIGATIONS-* 


•  List  studies  and  cTpcriracnLs  approved  by   invcstiKilive  committee  and  also  any  others  which 
appear  desirable  for  future  attention. 

t  If  covered  under  PlantinK.  make  suitable  reference. 


INDEX 

Abnormal  forests,  regulation  of,  104 

Administrative  divisions,  25 

Administrative  plan,  instructions  for,  203,  209 

outline  for,  126,  198 
Age  classes,  general  classification,  5 

in  selection  forest,  5 

size  of,  4 

table  of,  29 

table  of,  in  Austria,  183,  186 
Allison,  J.  H.,  15 

Allowed  annual  cut  (see  regulation  of  yield) 

Amenagement   (see  working  plans,  practice  of,  in  France)    :syn.  forest  organ- 
ization) 
Annual  plans  (see  working  plans,  also  cutting  plan  and  planting  plan) 

instructions  for,  in  United  States,  211 
Area,  determination  of  yield  by,  44 
Auhagen,  92 
Austrian  formula,  determination  of  yield  by,  52,  180,  200 

Base  lines  (see  also  timber  estimates),  10 

Block  (see  also  division  of  area),  20 

Breymann's  method,  determination  of  yield  by,  61 

Brush  disposal,  place  of  in  working  plan  (see  also  marking  rules),  120 

Bukowina,  forest  organization  in,  180,  185 

Bureau  of  Forestry,  190 

Collection  of  data  (see  also  reconnaissance) 

in  Baden,  165 

in  Bavaria,  157 

in  United  States,  instructions  for,  209 

preliminary  work,  8 

survey  of  area,  9 
Compartment  (see  also  division  of  area),  20,  21 
Control  and  revision  (see  working  plans,  control  and  revision  of) 
Control  book,  133 

in  Austria,  187 

in  Prussia,  143 
Cotta,  Heinrich,  92,  160 

Coupes  (see  also  determination  of  yield,  in  France),  176 
Cutting  and  logging  rules,  place  of  in  working  plan,  121 
Cutting  and  planting  record  (see  control  book) 

227 


228  INDEX 

Cutting  cycle,  record  of  in  working  plan  (see  also  rotation),  120 
Cutting  plan,  97,  100 

annual,  103,  121 

general,  loi,  121 

in  Bavaria,  155 

in  France,  174 

in  JVussia,  1 39 

place  of  in  revisions,  136 

place  of  in  working  plan,  121 
Cutting  series,  99 

in  Saxony,  162 

Department  of  Agriculture,  190 

Secretary  of,  201 
Determination  of  yield,  43 

by  area,  44 

by  area  and  volume  by  age  classes,  81,  82,  84 

by  area  and  volume  by  periods,  89 

by  area  and  volume  for  entire  forest,  78 

by  volume  on  diameter  classes,  66 

by  volume  on  growing  stock,  47,  49 

by  volume  on  growing  stock  and  increment,  52,  55,  59 

by  volume  on  increment,  49 

in  Austria,  185 

in  France,  66,  172,  176 

in  Iniled  Stales,  198 

record  of  in  working  plan,  121 

review  of  methods,  94 

summary  of  methods,  43 
Diameter-class  method,  determination  of  yield  by,  75 

application  to  America,  78 
Direct  method,  determination  of  yield  by,  81 
Distribution  of  the  age  classes,  i,  4 

advantages  of  comparison  between  actual  and  normal,  7 

grajjhic  comparison  of  actual  with  normal,  7 

record  of  in  working  plan  (see  also  tables),  116,  121,  136 
Distril)ution  of  yield,  96 

in  France,  175 
District  Forester,  200,  213 
Division  of  area,  20 

blixk,  20,  21 

boundaries  of,  23,  25 

coincidence  with  administrative  divisions,  25 

compartment,  20,  21 

designations  of,  23 

in  Alsace-Lorraine,  168 


INDEX 

Division  of  area  in  Austria,  i8o 
in  Bavaria,  148,  151 
in  France,  172 
in  Prussia,  140 
in  Saxony, 160 
principles  of,  20 
record  of  in  working  plan,  1 19 
subcompartment  (stand),  20,  21 
working  figure,  20 

Estimates  (see  timber  estimates) 

Fernow,  B.  E.,  see  Introduction,  p.  xii 
Fire  plan  (see  forest  protection  plan) 
Forest  adjustment  (syn.  forest  organization) 
Forest  description,  17 

essentials  of,  17 

in  Alsace-Lorraine,  169 

in  Austria,  184 

in  France,  173 

record  of  in  working  plan,  119 

unit  of,  19 
Forest  organization 

control  of,  in  Austria,  180 

in  Bavaria,  157 

in  Prussia,  142 

in  Saxony,  159 

in  United  States,  191,  200,  201,  209,  212 
definition  of,  see  Introduction,  p.  xi 
Forest  organizer  (see  forest  organization) 
Forest  plan,  see  Introduction,  p.  xi 

section  of  National  Forest  Manual,  201  ^ 

instructions  in,  202  et  seq. 

issued,  201 
Forest  protection  plan,  instructions  for,  202,  207,  209,  212 

outline  for,  126,  196 
Forest  Service,  190 

Forest  types,  record  of  in  working  plan,  214  • 

Forsteinrichtung  (syn.  forest  organization,  which  see) 
French  method,  determination  of  yield  by,  66 

Graves,  Henry  S.,  2 

Grazing  management,  plan  of,  instructions  tor,  202,  205,  21 1, 

outline  for,  126,  195 
Greeley,  W.  B.,  106 
Growing  stock,  normal,  I,  4 


230  INDEX 

Growing  stock,  actual  (see   reconnaissance  and  timber  estimates)    record  of, 

in  working  plan,  1 16 
(iuzman,  E.,  185 

Hartig,  G.  L.,  138 

Heycr's  method,  determination  of  yield  by,  63 

application  to  America,  65 

Heyer,  Carl,  65 

Heyer,  Gustav,  65 

use  in  Alsace-Lorraine,  170 

use  in  Baden,  166 

use  in  United  States,  200 
Hufnagl's  methods  of  determining  yield,  2,  49,  75,  81,  82,  83 

by  age  classi-s,  81,  82 

by  current  annual  increment,  49 

by  diameter  classes,  75 

formula  for  determining  the  yield,  83 

application  to  America,  84 

Hundeshagcn's  method,  determination  of  yield  by,  59 

Increment,  borer,  use  of,  2 

current  annual,  3 

determination  of,  i 

determination  of  yield  by,  49 

importance  of,  43 

mean  annual,  3 

normal,  i 

record  of  in  working  plan,  116 
Indian  method,  determination  of  yield  l)y,  72 
Investigations,  record  of,  in  working  plan,  226 

Jagen  (see  working-plans  practice,  Prussia) 
Judeich,  Friedrich,  53,  58,  59,  64,  84 

Kameraltaxe  (see  Austrian  formula) 

Karl's  method,  determination  of  yield  by,  55 

Limitation  of  annual  cut  (see  regulation  of  yield) 
Logging  unit  (see  also  Block),  34 

Management,  object  of,  33,  37 

record  of  in  working  plan,  120,  215 
silviiultural.  Introduction,  j).  xi 
silvicultural  method  of,  33,  35 

record  of  in  working  plan,  120,  215 
Manual  of  procedure,  200 


INDEX  231 

Maps  and  tables  (see  also  tables),  28 

in  working  plan,  117 

of  stands  to  be  cut  (see  also  cutting  plan),  98 

sample  sketch  map,  27 
Markets,  influence  of  on  sustained  yield,  34 
Market  unit  (see  also  working  figure),  34 
Marking  rules,  place  of  in  working  plan,  120,  210,  215 

general,  199 
Martin,  Heinrich,  43,  53,  58 
Masson,  Methode  de,  2,  49 
Methode  de  1883  (see  French  method) 
Method  of  treatment,  determination  of,  33 
Moore,  Barrington,  52,  66,  ^2 

National  forest  manual,  201 
National  forests,  190,  191,  198 
New  reconnaissance,  the,  191 
Normal  forest,  its  attributes,  I 

Office  of  forest  management,  191 
Office  of  silviculture,  200 
Organization  (see  forest  organization) 

Paulsen  (see  also  Hundeshagen),  60 

Period  methods,  determination  of  yield  by,  89 

area-period  method  (syn.  area  framework,  "flachenfachwerk"),  89 
area-and-volume-period   method   (syn.   combined  framework,   "kombin- 
iertes  fachwerk"),  91 
in  Alsace-Lorraine,  169 
in  Austria,  185 
in  Baden,  164 
in  Bavaria,  147 
in  France,  173,  174 
in  Prussia,  138 
in  Saxony,  160 
in  Wurttemberg,  163 
volume-period  method  (syn.  volume  framework,  "Massenfachwerk"),  90 
Period  of  regeneration,  record  of  in  working  plan  (see  also  method  of  manage- 
ment, silvicultural),  120 
Permanent  improvement  plan,  instructions  for,  202,  206,  211,  212 

outline  for,  126,  197 
Planting  plan,  128 

annual,  128,  130,  131 

general,  128,  129,  132 

place  of  in  revisions,  135 

place  of  in  working  plan,  121,  224 


262  INDEX 

Preliminary  plans,  in  Austria  (Bukowina),  i8o 

in  United  States,  201,  203 
Prussia,  practice  of  wurking  pbns  in,  137 

Reconnaissance  (see  collection  of  data  and  timlxr  estimates) 

estimates,  method  of,  I4 

record  of  in  working  plan,  1 15,  226 

section  of,  191,  199,  200 
Regulation,  in  selection  forest,  Alsace-Lorraine,  170 

in  siK'cial  cases,  104 

of  transition  forests,  106 

of  turpentine  forests,  108 

of  wood-lots,  108 

of  yield,  defined,  42 

re<-ord  of  in  working  plan,  121,  216 

unit  of,  33 
Revisions  (see  working  plans,  control  and  revision  of) 

in  Alsace-Lorraine,  170 

in  Austria,  186 

in  Baden,  165 

in  Bavaria,  156 

in  Prussia,  142 

in  Saxony,  162 

in  United  States,  213 
Rotation,  33,  38 

choice  of,  40 

customary  rotations  in  Europe,  41 

financial  rotation  (syn.  of  highest  soil  rent),  39 

in  Austria,  186 

in  Bavaria,  152 

in  Prussia,  141 

latent  rotation,  39 

of  greatest  income  (syn.  of  highest  forest  rent),  39 

of  greatest  volume  (syn.  silvicultural  rotation,  economic  rotation),  38 

physical  rotation,  38 

record  of  in  working  plan,  120,  216 

technical  rotation,  38 
Russian  method,  determination  of  yield  by,  78 

Sale  policy,  198,  200 

Schneider's  formula,  use  01,  2 

Secticjn  of  reconnaissance,  191,  199,  200 

Silvicultural  management,  plan  of,  instructions  for,  204,  209,  21 1 

outline  for,  193,  212 

system  (see  silvicultural  mtthiid  of  management) 
Stand  (see  also  subcompartmcnt),  20,  21 


INDEX  233 

Stand,  basis  of  differentiation,  22 

selection  of  stands  to  be  cut  (see  also  cutting  plan),  97 
Stand  method,  determination  of  yield  by,  84 

application  to  America,  89 

table  (see  tables) 
Statistics,  record  of  in  working  plan,  220,  221,  222,  223 
Strip  surveys  (see  also  timber  estimates),  12,  192 
Stumpage  rates,  minimum,  199,  200 

place  of  in  working  plan,  121,  217 

standard,  200 
Subcompartment  (see  also  division  of  area,  and  stand),  20,  21 
Survey  of  area  (see  also  collection  of  data),  9 
Sustained  yield,  application  of,  34 

relation  to  increment,  43 

total  for  national  forests,  201 

Tables  (see  also  maps  and  tables) 

age-class  table,  29;  examples  of,  31,  32^ 

alienation  table,  29 

area  tables,  29 

general  stand  table,  example  of,  29 

in  Austria,  184 

in  Prussia,  139 

place  of  in  working  plan,  117 
instructions  for  tabulations.  United  States,  209 
stand  tables,  29 
Timber  estimates  (see  also  collection  of  data  and  reconnaissance) 

base  lines,  10 

cost  of,  17 

in  Austria,  182  » 

in  Bavaria,  150 

in  United  States,  191,  192,  213.  214 

ocular  estimates  (see  also  reconnaissance),  13 

requisites,  10 

size  of  crew,  12 

the  strips,  12 

time  of,  16 
Transition  forest,  regulation  of,  106 
Turpentine  forest,  regulation  of,  108 

number  of  crops  operative  annually,  112 

Use  per  cent  (see  Hundeshagen's  method) 

Uses  of  forest  land,  instructions  for,  202,  207,  211,  212 

outline  for  plan  of,  127,  196 
Utilization,  record  of  in  working  plan,  218 


234  INDEX 

\on  Grebe,  92 

\'on  Mantel's  method,  determination  of  yield  by,  2,  47,  200 

\on  Stockhauscn,  92 

Wood-lots,  regulation  of,  io8 

Woolsey,  T.  S.,  Jr.,  200 

Working  block  (see  working  figure) 

Working  circle"  (see  working  figure) 

Working  figure  (sec  also  division  of  area),  20,  33 

Working  period,  121,  133,  208 

Working  plans 

ccjnference,  8,  136,  158 

record  of  in  plan,  116,  136,  209 
control  and  revision  of,  133 
documents,  1 13 

contents  and  form,  113 
foundations  of,  i 
outlines  for,  122 

American  outline,  suggested,  124 
administrative  plan,  126 
2p|K'ndix,  contents  of,  127 
forest  protection  plan,  126 
foundation,  125 
grazing  plan,  126 
maps,  128 
orientation,  124 

permanent  improvement  plan,  126 
recommendations,  125 
regulation,  126 
uses  of  forest  land,  127 
Forest  service  outline,  192 
Prussian  outline,  122 
Saxon  outline,  124 
raciice  of,  137 

in  Alsiicc-Lorraine,  167 

in  America,  k^o;  instructions  for,  202,  203,  208,  21 1 
in  Austria,  177 
in  Baden,  164 
in  Bavaria,  147 
in  France,  171 
in  Prussia,  137 
in  Saxony,  l,S9 
in  Wurttemlu-rg,  163 
resume  of,  in  Furope,  187 
scope  of,  Introducticjn,  |).  xi 
sphere  of.  Introduction,  [).  xii 
value  ancl  need  of,  Introduction,  p.  xi 


INDEX  235 

Working  plans  officer  (see  forest  organizer) 

Yale  forest  school,  Introduction,  p.  xii 

Yield,  determination  of  (see  determination  of  yield) 

Yield  tables,  use  of  in  estimating,  17 

Zon,  Raphael,  78 


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Baldwin — Steam  Heating  for  Buildings 12mo,     2  50 

Barr  and  Wood — Kinematics  of  Machinery Svo,     2  50 

Bartlett — Mechanical  Drawing.     Third  Edition. Svo,     3  00 

Abridgment  of  the  Second  Edition..  .  .Svo,  *1   50 

Burr — Ancient  and  Modern  Engineering  and  the  Isthmian  Canal Svo,  *3  50 

C.\Rpenter — Heating  and  Ventilating  Buildings Svo,     4  00 

and  Diederichs — Experimental  Engineering Svo,  *6  00 

Clerk— The  Gas,  Petrol  and  Oil  Engine Svo,  *4  00 

CoMPTON — First  Lessons  in  Metal  Working 12mo,     1   50 

and  De  Groodt — Speed  Lathe 12mo,     1  50 

CoOLiDGE — Manual  of  Drawing Svo.  paper,     1  00 

and  Freeman — Elements  of   General  Drafting   for    Mechanical   Engi- 
neers  Oblong  4to,     2  50 

Cromwell — Treatise  on  Belts  and  Pulleys 12mo,     1  50 

Treatise  on  Toothed  Gearing ' 1 2mo,     1   50 

Dingey — Machinery  Pattern  Making 12mo,     2  00 

Durley — Kinematics  of  Machines Svo,     4  00 

Flanders — Gear-cutting  Machinery Small  Svo,     3  00 

Flather — Dynamometers  and  the  Measurement  of  Power 12mo,     3  00 

Rope  Driving 12mo,     2  00 

Fuller  and  Johnston — Applied  Mechanics: 

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Vol.  IJ.     Strength  of  Materials (.In  Preparation.) 

Gill — Gas  and  Fuel  Analysis  for  Engineers 12mo,     1  25 

Goss — Locomotive  Sparks Svo,     2  00 

Greene — Elements  of  Heating  and  Ventilation Svo,  *2  50 

Pumping  Machinery Svo,  *4  00 

Hering — P.eady  Reference  Tables  (Conversion  Factors) 16mo,  mor.,     2  .50 

HoBART  and  Ellis — High  Speed  Dynamo  Electric  Machinery Svo,  *6  00 

HuTTON— Gas  Engine Svo,     5  00 

Jamison — Advanced  Mechanical  Drawing ;  .  .Svo,     2  00 

Elements  of  Mechanical  Drawing Svo,     2  50 

Jones — Gas  Engine Svo,     4  00 

Machine  Design: 

Part  I.     Kinematics  of  Machinery Svo,     1   50 

Part  II.     Form,  Strength,  and  Proportions  of  Parts Svo,     3  00 

Kaup— Machine  Shop  Practice Small  Svo,   *1   25 

Kent — Mechanical  Engineers'  Pocket-Book IGmo,  mor.,  *5  00 

Kerr — Power  and  Power  Transmission Svo,     2  00 

Kimball  and  Barr— Machine  D^ign Svo,  *3  00 

King — Elements  of  the   Mechanics  of   Materials  and  of   Power  of  Trans- 
mission   Svo,  *2  .50 

Lanza — Dynamics  of  Machinery Svo,  *2  50 

Leonard — Machine  Shop  Tools  and  Methods Svo,     4  00 

Levin — Modern  Gas  Bugine  and  the  Gas  Producer Svo,  *4  00 

Lorenz — Modern  Refrigerating  Machinery.     (Pope,  Haven,  and  Dean.) 

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13 


MacCord— Kinematic*:  or,  Practical  Mechanism.  ...  .  .Svo.  Sa  00 

.M.    i,..ni    i'.  Drawing 4to.     4   00 

■ims Svo,      1   50 

Ma.  >:idard  Reduction  Factors  for  Gases Svo,     1  .50 

Ma  Drawing.     (Thompson.) Svo,     3  50 

Mk!  ,:iKine  Theory  and  Design Small  Svo.     2  50 

Ohi  ' 'f  Sm.all  Tools Small  Svo.     2  50 

Paw  \kt — Electric  Machine  Design. .  .Small  4to.  half  leather,*  12  50 

Pei  ■      Vlant.     Second  Edition,  Revised  and  Enlarged. Hvo,  *3  50 

Po..  Fuels Svo.     3  00 

PoK  .iniscences,  1855  to  1882 Svo.  *3  00 

Rei:  ^:.     (Elementary  and  Advanced.) Svo.  *2  00 

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Rl(  !  r 12mo.      1   50 

Rom  Mechanism Svo.     3  (X) 

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Smith  (O.)— Press-workinR  of  Met-als Sv.>.     3  00 

(A.  \V.)  and  Marx— Machine  Design Sv.j.     3  00 

SoREL — Carbureting  and  Combustion  in  Alcohol  Engines,      i  Woohwakd  and 

Prestos.) Small  Svo,     3  00 

Stone — Practical  Testing  of  Gas  and  Gas  Meters Svo.     3  50 

Thurston — Animal  as  a  Machine  and  Prime  Motor,  and  >the  Laws  of 

EnerKCtics 12mo.     1  00 

Treatise  on  Friction  and  Lost  Work  in  Machinery  and  Mill  Work.  .Svo,     3  00 

TiLLSON — Complete  Automobile  Instructor IGmo,  *1  50 

Titswortii — Elements  of  Mechanical  Drawing Oblong  Svo,  *1   25 

Warren — Elements  of  Machine  Construction  and  Drawing Svo,     7  50 

Waterburv — Vest  Pocket  Hand-book  of  Mathematics  for  Engineers. 

21  X5J  inches,  mor..  *!  00 

Enlarged  Edition.  Including  Tables mor..  *1  50 

Weisdach — Kinematics  and    the   Power  of  Transmission.     (IIerr.mann — 

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Machinery  of  Transmission  and  Governors.     (Herrmann — Klein.). Svo,     5  00 
Wood — Turbines Svo,     2  50 

MATERIALS  OF  EN'GIXEERIXG. 

Bottler — German  and  American  Varnish   Making.     (Sabin.)  .  .  .Small  Svo,  *3  50 

Burr — Elasticity  and  Resistance  of  the  Materials  of  Engineering Svo,     7  50 

Church — Mechanics  of  Engineering Svo,     6  00 

Mechanics  of  Solids  (Being  Parts  I,  II.  Ill  of  Mechanics  of  Engineering). 

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Fuller  and  Johnston — Applied  Mechanics: 

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Greene — Structural  Mechanics Svo.  *2  50 

Hollev — Analysis  of  P.aint  and  Varnish  Products Small  Svo,  *2  .50 

Lead  and  Zinc  Pigments Small  Svo,  *3  00 

JoHNScs   (C.   M.) — Rapid   Methods  for  the  Chemical   Analysis  of  Special 

Steels.  Steel-making  Alloys  and  Graphite Small  Svo,     3  00 

(J.  B.)  Materials  of  Construction Svo,     6  00 

Keep— Cast  Iron Svo,     2  50 

King — Elements  of  the  Mechanics  of    Materials  and   of   Power  of   Trans- 
mission   Svo,  *2  50 

Lanza — Applied  Mechanics Svo,     7  50 

Lowe — Paints  for  Steel  Structures 12mo,     1  00 

Maire — Modern  Pigments  and  their  Vehicles 12mo,     2  00 

Martin — Text-Book  of  Mechanics: 

Vol.  I.     Statics 12mo,  *1  25 

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Vol.  III.      Mechanics  of  Materials 12mo.  *1   50 

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Maurer — Technical  Mechanics Svo,     4  00 

Merriman — Mechanics  of  Materials Svo,     5  00 

Strength  of  Materials 12mo,  *1  00 

Metcai.f — Steel.     A  Manual  for  Steel-users 12mo.     2  00 

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14 


Sarin — Industrial  and  Artistic  Technology  of  Paint  and  Varnish 8vo,  $3  00 

Smith  (A.  W.) — Materials  of  Machines 12mo,  1  00 

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Thurston — Materials  of  Engineering 3  vols.,  8vo,  8  00 

Part  I.     Non-metallic  Materials  of  Engineering 8vo,  2  00 

Part  II.     Iron  and  Steel 8vo,  3  50 

Part  III.     A  Treatise  on  Brasses,  Bronzes,  and  Other  Alloys  and  their 

Constituents 8vo,  2  50 

Waterbury — Laboratory   Manual  for  Testing   Materials  of    Construction. 

12mo,  *1   50 

Wood  (De  V.) — Elements  of  Analytical  Mechanics Svo,  3  00 

Treatise  on  the  Resistance  of  Materials  and  an  Appendix  on  the  Preser- 
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(M.  P.)    Rustless    Coatings.     Corrosion   and   Electrolysis   of   Iron  and 

Steel Svo,  4  00 

STEAM-ENGINES  AND  BOILERS. 

Abraham — Steam  Economy  in  the  Sugar  Factory.      (Bayle.)  .  .  .  (In  Press.) 
Berry — Temperature-entropy   Diagram.     Third  Edition  Revised  and   En- 
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Carnot — Reflections  on  the  Motive  Power  of  Heat.     (Thurston.)..  .  12mo,  1  50 

Chase — Art  of  Pattern  Making 12mo,  2  50 

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Dawson — "  Engineering  "  and  Electric  Traction  Pocket-book.  ..16mo,  mor.,  5  00 

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Hutton — Heat  and  Heat-engines 8vo,  5  00 

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Kent— Steam  Boiler  Economy ." Svo,  4  00 

King — Steam  Engineering (^»  Press.) 

Kneass — Practice  and  Theory  of  the  Injector Svo,  1   50 

MacCord— Slide-valves Svo,  2  00 

Meyer — Modern  Locomotive  Construction 4to,  10  00 

Miller,  Berry,  and  Riley — Problems  in  Thermodynamics..  .  .Svo,  paper,  0  75 

Moyer — Steam  Turbines Svo,  4  00 

Peabody — Manual  of  the  Steam-engine  Indicator 12mo,  1   50 

Tables  of  the  Properties  of  Steam  and  Other  Vapors  and  Temperature- 
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Valve-gears  for  Steam-engines Svo,  2  .50 

and  Miller — Steam-boilers •. Svo,  4  00 

Perkins — Introduction  to  General  Thermodynamics 12mo,  1   50 

Pupin — Thermodynamics    of    Reversible    Cycles    in    Gases    and    Saturated 

Vapors.     (Osterberg.) • 12mo,  1  25 

Reagan — Locomotives:    Simple,   Compound,  and  Electric.     New  Edition. 

Small  Svo,  3  50 

Sinclair — Locomotive  Engine  Running  and  Management 12mo,  2  00 

Smart — Handbook  of  Engineering  Laboratory  Practice 12mo,  2  50 

Snow — Steam-boiler  Practice Svo,  3  00 

Spangler — Notes  on  Thermodynamics 12mo,  1  00 

Valve-gears 8vo,  2  50 

Greene,  and  Marshall — Elements  of  Steam-engineering Svo,  3  00 

Thomas — Steam-turbines Svo,  4  00 

Thurston — Manual    of    Steam-boilers,    their    Designs,    Construction,    and 


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.Svo,     5  00 


Manual  of  the  Steam-engine 2  vols.,  Svo,  10  00 

Part  I.     History,  Structure,  and  Theory Svo,  6  00 

Part  II.      Design,  Construction,  and  Operation .8vo,  6  00 

Wehrenfennig — Analysis  and  Softening  of  Boiler  Feed-water.      (Pattkr- 


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Wood — Thermodynamics,  Heat  Motors,  and  Refrigerating  Machines. .  .Svo,  4  00 

15 


MECHANICS  PLRF.  AND  AF>PLir:D. 

ClURCH — Meoh.inics  of  EnRinccrinK  8vo.   56  00 

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8vo,  *1   .W 

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Da  :    Mechanics  for  Colkyt-s  and  SchcKils..l2mo.     ISO 

Dv  Uuii     Ij;i;iijtniAr>  I'rjutiplcs  of  Mechanic-: 

Vol.  I.     Kinematics .    Svo,     3  50 

Vol.11.     Statics .      Svo.     4  00 

Mechanics  of  Engineering.     Vol.  I .    Sm.all  -Ito.     7  50 

Vol.  II. ...Small  4lo,  10  00 

Filler  and  Johnston — Applied  Mechanics: 

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Greene — Structural  Mechanics 8vo,  *2  60 

H.\RTMANN— Elementary  Mechanics  for  Engineering  Students 12mo,  *1  25 

James — Kinematics  of  a  Point  and  the  Rational  Mechanics  of  i  Particle. 

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King — Elements  of  the   Mechanics  of    Materials  and  of   Power  of  Trans- 
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Mairer — Technical  Mechanics Svo,     4  00 

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ScHWAMB  and  Merrill — Elements  of  Mechanism Svo.     3  00 

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A\EDICAL. 

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